Chapter 1
Systems of Linear Equations
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Elementary Linear Algebra
R. Larsen et al. (8 Edition)
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
a linear equation in n variables:
a1,a2,a3,…,an, b: real number
a1: leading coefficient
x1: leading variable
Notes:
(1) Linear equations have no products or roots of variables and
no variables involved in trigonometric, exponential, or
logarithmic functions.
(2) Variables appear only to the first power.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.2 2/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Ex 1: (Linear or Nonlinear)
1
L inear (a ) 3x 2 y 7 ( b) x y z 2 L inear
2
L inear (c) x1 2 x2 10 x3 x4 0 (d ) (sin ) x1 4 x2 e 2 L inear
2
Exponentia l
N onlinear (e) xy z 2 ( f ) ex 2 y 4 N onlinear
not the first power
1 1
N onlinear ( g ) sinx1 2 x2 3x3 0 (h) 4 N onlinear
x y
trigonomet ric functions not the first power
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.2 3/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
a solution of a linear equation in n variables:
a1 x1 a2 x2 a3 x3 an xn b
x1 s1 , x2 s2 , x3 s3 , , xn sn
such that a1s1 a2 s2 a3 s3 an sn b
Solution set:
the set of all solutions of a linear equation
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, pp.2-3 4/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Ex 2： (Parametric representation of a solution set)
x1 2 x2 4
a solution: (2, 1), i.e. x1 2, x2 1
If you solve for x1 in terms of x2, you obtain
x1 4 2 x2 ,
By letting x2 t you can represent the solution set as
x1 4 2t
And the solutions are (4 2t, t ) | t R or ( s, 2 12 s) | s R
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.3 5/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
a system of m linear equations in n variables:
a11x1 a12 x2 a13 x3 a1n xn b1
a21x1 a22 x2 a23 x3 a 2 n xn b2
a31x1 a32 x2 a33 x3 a3n xn b3
am1 x1 am 2 x2 am3 x3 amn xn bm
Consistent:
A system of linear equations has at least one solution.
Inconsistent:
A system of linear equations has no solution.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.4 6/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Notes:
Every system of linear equations has either
(1) exactly one solution,
(2) infinitely many solutions, or
(3) no solution.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.5 7/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Ex 4: (Solution of a system of linear equations)
(1) x y 3
x y 1 exactly one solution
two intersecti ng lines
(2) x y 3
2x 2 y 6 inifinite num ber
two coincident lines
(3) x y 3
x y 1 no solution
two parallel lines
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.5 8/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Ex 5: (Using back substitution to solve a system in row echelon form)
x 2y 5 (1)
y 2 (2)
Sol: By substituting y 2 into (1), you obtain
x 2( 2) 5
x 1
The system has exactly one solution: x 1, y 2
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.6 9/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Ex 6: (Using back substitution to solve a system in row echelon form)
x 2 y 3z 9 (1)
y 3z 5 (2)
z 2 (3)
Sol: Substitute z 2 into (2)
y 3(2) 5
y 1
and substitute y 1 and z 2 into (1)
x 2( 1) 3(2) 9
x 1
The system has exactly one solution:
x 1, y 1, z 2
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, pp.6 10/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Equivalent:
Two systems of linear equations are called equivalent
if they have precisely the same solution set.
Notes:
Each of the following operations on a system of linear
equations produces an equivalent system.
(1) Interchange two equations.
(2) Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant.
(3) Add a multiple of an equation to another equation.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.7 11/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Ex 7: Solve a system of linear equations (consistent system)
x 2 y 3z 9 (1)
x 3y 4 (2)
2 x 5 y 5z 17 (3)
Sol: (1) (2) (2)
x 2 y 3z 9
y 3z 5 (4)
2 x 5 y 5z 17
(1) ( 2) (3) (3)
x 2 y 3z 9
y 3z 5
y z 1 (5)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.7 12/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
(4) (5) (5)
x 2 y 3z 9
y 3z 5
2z 4 (6)
(6) 12 (6)
x 2 y 3z 9
y 3z 5
z 2
So the solution is x 1, y 1, z 2 (only one solution)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.7 13/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Ex 8: Solve a system of linear equations (inconsistent system)
x1 3x2 x3 1 (1)
2 x1 x2 2 x3 2 (2)
x1 2 x2 3x3 1 (3)
Sol: (1) ( 2) (2) (2)
(1) ( 1) (3) (3)
x1 3x2 x3 1
5 x 2 4 x3 0 ( 4)
5 x 2 4 x3 2 (5)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.8 14/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
( 4) ( 1) (5) (5)
x1 3x2 x3 1
5 x 2 4 x3 0
0 2 (a false statement)
So the system has no solution (an inconsistent system).
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.8 15/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
Ex 9: Solve a system of linear equations (infinitely many solutions)
x 2 x3 0 (1)
x1 3 x3 1 (2)
x1 3 x2 1 (3)
Sol: (1) ( 2)
x1 3 x3 1 (1)
x2 x3 0 (2)
x1 3 x2 1 (3)
(1) (3) (3)
x1 3 x3 1
x 2 x3 0
3 x 2 3 x3 0 (4)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.9 16/51
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
x1 3x3 1
x2 x3 0
x2 x3 , x1 1 3x3
let x3 t
then x1 3t 1,
x2 t , tR
x3 t ,
So this system has infinitely many solutions.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.1, p.9 17/51
Keywords in Section 1.1:
linear equation: phương trình tuyến tính
system of linear equations: hệ phương trình tuyến tính
leading coefficient: hệ số leading
leading variable: biến leading
solution: nghiệm
solution set: tập nghiệm
parametric representation: biểu diễn tham số
consistent: có nghiệm
inconsistent: vô nghiệm
equivalent: tương đương
18/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
mn matrix:
a11 a12 a13 a1n
a21 a22 a23 a2 n
a31 a32 a33 a3n m rows
am1 am 2 am 3 amn
n columns
Notes:
(1) Every entry aij in a matrix is a number.
(2) A matrix with m rows and n columns is said to be of size mn .
(3) If m n , then the matrix is called square of order n.
(4) For a square matrix, the entries a11, a22, …, ann are called
the main diagonal entries.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, p.13 19/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Ex 1: Matrix Size
[ 2] 1 1
0 0 22
0 0
1 3 0 1
1 4
2
e
2 2 3 2
7 4
Note:
One very common use of matrices is to represent a system
of linear equations.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, p.13 20/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
a system of m equations in n variables:
a11x1 a12 x2 a13 x3 a1n xn b1
a21x1 a22 x2 a23 x3 a 2 n xn b2
a31x1 a32 x2 a33 x3 a3n xn b3
am1 x1 a m 2 x2 am3 x3 amn xn bm
Matrix form: Ax b
a11 a12 a13 a1n
a21 a22 a23 a2 n x1 b1
A a31 a32 a33 a3n x x2 b b2
xn bm
am1 am 2 am 3 amn
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, 21/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Augmented matrix:
a11 a12 a13 a1n b1
a21 a22 a23 a2 n b2
a31 a32 a33 a3n b3 [ A b]
am1 am 2 am 3 amn bm
Coefficient matrix:
a11 a12 a13 a1n
a21 a22 a23 a2 n
a31 a32 a33 a3n A
am1 am 2 am 3 amn
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, pp.13 22/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Elementary row operation:
(1) Interchange two rows. rij : Ri R j
(2) Multiply a row by a nonzero constant. ri( k ) : (k ) Ri Ri
(3) Add a multiple of a row to another row. r ( k ) : (k ) R R R
ij i j j
Row equivalent:
Two matrices are said to be row equivalent if one can be obtained
from the other by a finite sequence of elementary row operation.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, pp.14 23/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Ex 2: (Elementary row operation)
0 1 3 4 r12 1 2 0 3
1 2 0 3 0 1 3 4
2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1
2 4 6 2 r
( 12 )
1 2 3 1
1 3 3 0 1 3 3 0
1
5 2 1 2 5 2 1 2
1 2 4 3 r13( 2 ) 1 2 4 3
0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1
2 1 5 2 0 3 13 8
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, p.14 24/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Ex 3: Using elementary row operations to solve a system
Linear System Associated Elementary
Augemented Matrix Row Operation
x 2 y 3z 9 1 2 3 9
x 3y 4 1 3 0 4
2 x 5 y 5 z 17 2 5 5 17
x 2 y 3z 9 1 2 3 9
0 r12(1) : (1) R1 R2 R2
y 3z 5 1 3 5
2 x 5 y 5 z 17 2 5 5 17
x 2 y 3z 9 1 2 3 9
0 r13( 2) : (2) R1 R3 R3
y 3z 5 1 3 5
y z 1 0 1 1 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, pp.15 25/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Associated Elementary
Linear System Augemented Matrix Row Operation
x 2 y 3z 9 1 2 3 9r : (1)R R R
(1)
0 1 3 5
23 2 3 3
y 3z 5
2z 4 0 0 2 4
x 2 y 3z 9 1 2 3 9 1
( ) 1
0 1 3 5 r 2
: ( ) R3 R3
y 3z 5
3
2
z 2 0 0 1 2
x 1
y 1
z 2
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, pp.15 26/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Row-echelon form: (1, 2, 3)
Reduced row-echelon form: (1, 2, 3, 4)
(1) All row consisting entirely of zeros occur at the bottom
of the matrix.
(2) For each row that does not consist entirely of zeros,
the first nonzero entry is 1 (called a leading 1).
(3) For two successive (nonzero) rows, the leading 1 in the higher
row is farther to the left than the leading 1 in the lower row.
(4) Every column that has a leading 1 has zeros in every position
above and below its leading 1.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, p.15 27/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Ex 4: (Row-echelon form or reduced row-echelon form)
1 2 1 4 (row - echelon 0 1 0 5 (reduced row -
0 1 0 3 0 0 1 3 echelon form)
0 0 1 2 form) 0 0 0 0
1 5 2 1 3 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 3 2 (row - echelon 0 1 0 2 (reduced row -
0 0 0 1 4 form) 0 0 1 3 echelon form)
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2
0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 3 0 1 2 4
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, p.16 28/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Gaussian elimination:
The procedure for reducing a matrix to a row-echelon form.
Gauss-Jordan elimination:
The procedure for reducing a matrix to a reduced row-echelon
form.
Notes:
(1) Every matrix has an unique reduced row echelon form.
(2) A row-echelon form of a given matrix is not unique.
(Different sequences of row operations can produce
different row-echelon forms.)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, p.16 29/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Ex: (Procedure of Gaussian elimination and Gauss-Jordan elimination)
Produce leading 1
0 0 2 0 8 12
r12 2 8 6 4 12 28
2 8 6 4 12 28 0 0 2 0
8 12
2 4 5 6 5 4 2 4 5 6 5 4
The first nonzero column
leading 1 Produce leading 1
r1
( 12 )
1 4 3 2 6 14 r13( 2 ) 1 4 3 2 6 14
0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 12
8 12
8
2 4 5 6 5 4 0 0 5 0 17 24
Zeros elements below leading 1 The first nonzero Submatrix
column
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, Addition 30/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
leading 1
( 12 ) 1 4 3 2 6 14
r23( 5)
1 4 3 2 6 14
r 0 0
2
1 0 4 6 0 0 1 0 4 6
0 0 5 0 17 24 0 0 0 0 3 6
Zeros elements below leading 1 Submatrix
Produce leading 1
Zeros elsewhere
1
(
3
)
1 4(row -echelon
3 2form) 6 14 r31( 6 ) 1 4 3 2 0 2
r3 0 0
0 0 1 0 4 6 1 0 4 6
0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 2
leading 1
(row - echelon form)
r32( 4 ) 1 4 3 2 0 2 1 4 0 2 0 8
0 0 r21(3)
1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 2
(row - echelon form) (reduced row - echelon form)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, Addition 31/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Ex 7: Solve a system by Gauss-Jordan elimination method
(only one solution)
x 2 y 3z 9
x 3y 4
2 x 5 y 5z 17
Sol:
augmented matrix
1 2 3 9 r23(1) 1 2 3 9
1 2 3 9 r12(1) , r13( 2) 0
0
1 3 0 4 1 3 5 1 3 5
2 5 5 17 0 1 1 1 0 0 2 4
1
( ) ( 3) ( 9 )
r3
2
1 2 3 9 r ( 2)
21 32 , r , r31 1 0 0 1 x 1
0 1 3 5 0 1 0 1 y 1
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 z 2
(row - echelon form) (reduced row - echelon form)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, pp.19 32/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Ex 8：Solve a system by Gauss-Jordan elimination method
(infinitely many solutions)
Sol: augmented matrix
( 3)
( 12 )( 1) ( 2 )
2 4 2 0 r , r12 1 , r2 , r21 1 0 5 2 (reduced row -
3 5 0 1 0 1 3 1 echelon form)
the correspond ing system of equations is
x1 5 x3 2
x2 3 x3 1
leading variable ：x1 , x2
free variable ： x3
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, pp.20 33/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
x1 2 5 x3
x 2 1 3 x3
Let x3 t
x1 2 5t ,
x2 1 3t , tR
x3 t ,
So this system has infinitely many solutions.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, p.20 34/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Homogeneous systems of linear equations:
A system of linear equations is said to be homogeneous
if all the constant terms are zero.
a11 x1 a12 x2 a13 x3 a1n xn 0
a21 x1 a22 x2 a23 x3 a2 n xn 0
a31 x1 a32 x2 a33 x3 a3n xn 0
am1 x1 am 2 x2 am 3 x3 amn xn 0
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, p.21 35/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Trivial solution:
x1 x2 x3 xn 0
Nontrivial solution:
other solutions
Notes:
(1) Every homogeneous system of linear equations is consistent.
(2) If the homogenous system has fewer equations than variables,
then it must have an infinite number of solutions.
(3) For a homogeneous system, exactly one of the following is true.
(a) The system has only the trivial solution.
(b) The system has infinitely many nontrivial solutions in
addition to the trivial solution.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, pp.21 36/51
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Ex 9: Solve the following homogeneous system
x1 x2 3x3 0
2 x1 x2 3x3 0
Sol: augmented matrix
( 2) ( 13 )
1 1 3 0 r12 , r , r21(1)
2 1 0 2 0 (reduced row -
2 1 3 0 0 1 1 0 echelon form)
leading variable ：x1 , x2
free variable ： x3
Let x3 t
x1 2t , x2 t , x3 t , t R
When t 0, x1 x2 x3 0 (trivial solution)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.2, p.21 37/51
Keywords in Section 1.2:
matrix: ma trận
row: dòng
column: cột
entry: phần tử
size: cỡ
square matrix: ma trận vuông
order: cấp
main diagonal: đường chéo chính
augmented matrix: ma trận mở rộng
coefficient matrix: ma trận hệ số
38/51
Keywords in Section 1.2:
elementary row operation: phép biến đổi sơ cấp trên dòng
row equivalent: tương đương dòng
row-echelon form:
reduced row-echelon form:
leading 1:
Gaussian elimination: khử Gauss
Gauss-Jordan elimination: khử Gauss-Jordan
free variable: ẩn tự do
homogeneous system: hệ thuần nhất
trivial solution: nghiệm tầm thường
nontrivial solution: nghiệm không tầm thường
39/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
POLYNOMIAL CURVE
FITTING
This procedure is called
polynomial curve
fitting
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.25 40/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.25 41/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.25 42/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.26 43/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Find a polynomial that relates the periods of the three planets
that are closest to the Sun to their mean distances from the
Sun, as shown in the table. Then use the polynomial to
calculate the period of Mars, and compare it to the value
shown in the table. (The mean distances are in astronomical
units, and the periods are in years).
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.27 44/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.27 45/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
The problem of curve fitting can be difficult. Types of functions
other than polynomial functions may provide better fits. For
instance, look again at the curve-fitting problem in Example 4.
Taking the natural logarithms of the distances and periods
produces the results shown in the table.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.28 46/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Now, fitting a polynomial to the logarithms of the distances
and periods produces the linear relationship
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.28 47/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.28 48/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
NETWORK ANALYSIS
Networks composed of branches and junctions are used as
models in such fields as economics, traffic analysis, and
electrical engineering. In a network model, you assume that the
total flow into a junction is equal to the total flow out of the
junction. For example, the junction shown below has 25 units
flowing into it, so there must be 25 units flowing out of it. You
can represent this with the linear equation
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.29 49/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Set up a system of linear equations to represent the network
shown in Figure 1.6. Then solve the system.
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.29 50/51
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 1.3, p.30 51/51
