LEADING

Group 3 Frederick Bernardo

Ariane Lapuz
Samm Pua
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Lesson 1

What Leading Is

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“ Leading is a management
function that involves inspiring
and influencing people in the
organization to achieve a
common goal.

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Big Five Personality Characteristics

▰ Extraversion – the degree to which someone is sociable,

talkative, and assertive
▰ Agreeableness – the degree to which someone is good
natured, cooperative, and trusting
▰ Conscientiousness – the degree to which someone is
responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement-
oriented

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Big Five Personality Characteristics

▰ Emotional Stability – the degree to which someone is

calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive), or tense,
nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative)
▰ Openness to experience – the degree to which someone is
imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual

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Lesson 2

Motivation
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Motivation

Motivation refers to psychological

processes that arouse and direct
goal-directed behavior

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 Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory – refers to Maslow’s

Hierarchy of Five Human Needs:
▰ Physiological Needs refer to the human need for food,
water, shelter, and other physical necessities.
▰ Safety Needs refer to human needs for security and
protection from physical and psychological harm.
▰ Social Needs pertain to the human desire to be loved and
to love, as well as the need for affection and
belongingness.
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 Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory – refers to Maslow’s

Hierarchy of Five Human Needs:
▰ Esteem Needs include the human need for self-respect,
self-fulfillment, and to become the best according to
one’s capability.
▰ Self-actualization Needs are the final needs in Maslow’s
hierarchy.

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 Five Core Job Dimensions

▰ Skill Variety – the degree by which a job requires different activities, so

employees may be able to use their different skills
▰ Task Identity – the degree by which a job requires completion of an
identifiable piece of work
▰ Task Significance – the degree by which a job has a significant impact on
the lives or work of others
▰ Autonomy – the degree by which a job provides enough freedom and
discretion to employees
▰ Feedback – the degree by which performing job requirements results in the
employee’s receipt of information about his or her performance
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effectiveness
 Motivation

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

▰ Theory X is a negative view of workers.
▰ Theory Y is a positive view of workers.
Managers must be guided by Theory Y, so McGregor
proposed that they must give employees a chance to
participate in decision-making, assign them challenging
jobs to exercise their responsibility in handling complex
situations, and allow them to have good work relations
with others, which would enhance their motivation.
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 Motivation

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory – was proposed by Frederick

Herzberg. This theory is also known as the Motivation-Hygiene
Theory which states that intrinsic factors (achievement,
recognition, growth, and responsibility) are associated with job
satisfaction, while extrinsic factors (company policy, salary,
security, and supervision) are associated with job
dissatisfaction. Intrinsic factors are the motivators while the
extrinsic factors are called “hygiene factors.”
Managers were advised to emphasize motivators in order to
motivate subordinates. Employees who showed job
satisfaction are more motivated and productive. This theory
enjoyes popularity from the middle of the 1960s to the early
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1980s.
 Motivation

McClelland’s Three Needs Theory – was proposed by David McClelland

and states that individuals have three needs that serve as motivators at
work
The three needs McClelland referred to are: the need for achievement
(nAch), the need for power (nPow), and the need for affiliation (nAff).
Managers are advised to be observant of these needs among their
subordinates so that they could be given job assignments that would
satisfy their highest needs, if possible. In doing so, they may be more
motivated to work well.

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 Motivation

Alderfer’s ERG Theory – was developed by Clayton Alderfer in

the 1960s.
For Alderfer, a set of core needs explains behavior. E stands for
existence needs, R refers to relatedness needs, and G pertains
to growth needs. The needs or desire for physiological and
materialistic well-being, to have meaningful relationships with
others, and to grow as a human being are similar to the needs
presented in Maslow’s Theory.

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 Modern Theories of Motivation

▰ Goal Setting Theory – a theory stating that specific goals motivate

performance and that more difficult goals, when accepted by
employees, result in greater motivation to perform well, as compared
to easy goals
Managers are advised to set goals for their subordinates as this is a
major source of job motivation; doing well also helps increase their
motivation.

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 Modern Theories of Motivation

Reinforcement Theory – a theory which states that behavior is a

function of its consequences
Job Design Theory – a theory which states that employees are
motivated to work well by combining tasks to form complete jobs
▰ Job Enrichment – the increasing of job depth by empowering
employees to assume some tasks usually done by their managers
▰ Job Characteristics Model – where employees are motivated to
perform well because the task assigned to them have the five core
job dimensions that serve as motivators
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 Modern Theories of Motivation

Equity Theory – a theory developed by J. Stacey Adams which

states that employees assess job outcomes in relation to what
they put into it and then compare these with their co-workers’
Expectancy Theory – states that an individual tends to act in a
certain way, based on the expectation that the act will be
followed by an outcome which may be attractive or unattractive
to him or her

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Lesson 3

Leadership Theories

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Early Leadership Theories

Trait Theory
Behavioral Theory
▰A theory based on leader traits or
personal characteristics that ▰ A theory that focuses on the
differentiate leaders from followers. behavior, action, conduct,
▰Evolved from the earlier “Great Man demeanor, or deporment of a
Theory,” which was based on the leader instead of on his or her
assumption that leaders were born personality traits.
with some innate ability to lead.

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Contemporary Theories
of Leadership

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 Field Model

▰ A situational leadership theory proposed by Fred Fielder, an

original behavioral scholar.
▰ This theory is based on the assumption that a leader's
effectiveness is contingent or dependent on the extent to
which a leader's style is fitted to actual situations in the
organization's internal and external environment.

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 Hersey-Blanchard Model

▰ The theory focused on subordinates' readliness or

the extent to which the said subordinates have the
ability and willingness to accomplish a specific
work assignment.

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 Four Stages of Subordinate Readiness

▰ R1 - Where the subordinates are both unable and unwilling to

accomplish the task.
▰ R2 - Where the subordinates are unable but willing to do the task.
▰ R3 - Where the subordinates are able but unwilling to do their
assigned tasks.
▰ R4 - Where the subordinates are both able and willing to do what the
leader wants to complete the task.

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 Path-Goal Theory

▰ A theory developed by Robert House which states that the

leader's task is to lead this followers or subordinates in
achieving their goals by providing them direction needed in
order to ensure compatibility of these said goals with the
organization's goal.

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 Four leadership behaviors

▰ Directive Leadership - where the leader gives specific guidelines to followers

so that task accomplishment would be easier;
▰ Supportive Leader - where the leader shows concern and friendliness to
subordinates;
▰ Participative Leadership - where the leader asks for suggestions from
followers before decision-making; and
▰ Achievement-Oriented - where the leader sets the goals that subordinates
must try to achieve.

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 Modern Views and
Approaches to Leadership

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 Transactional Leadership Model

▰ A theoretical model which states that leaders guide their

subordinates toward the achievement of their organization's
goals by using social exchange or transactions and by
offering rewards in exchange for their productivity.

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 Transformational Leadership Model

▰ A view that developed from transactional

leadership; it states that leaders inspire or
transform followers to achieve extraordinary
outcomes

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 According to Robbins and Coulter (2009):

▰ “Transformational leadership is strongly correlated

with lower turnover rates and higher levels of
productivity, employee satisfaction, creativity, goal
attainment, and follower well-being.”

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 Charismatic Leadership Theory

▰ It is another modern theory of leadership which states that

leaders who have a charismatic personality are able to
influence their subordinates to follow them.
▰ It pertains to leaders who are self - confident, enthusiastic,
and sensitive to both environmental constraints and
subordinates' the ability to communicate well verbally or
nonverbally through their behavior, among others.

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 Visionary Leadership Theory

▰ Is a theory which states that leaders able to make

their subordinates follow because of their ability to
create and articulate a realistic, credible, and
attractive vision that may improve present
conditions or circumstances.

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 Team Leadership Theory

▰ Is a theory that emerged because of the fact that

leadership is increasingly taking place within a
team context and that more companies are now
utilizing work teams led or guided by leaders.

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Lesson 4

Communication

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 Types of Communication

▰ Verbal – use of oral and written words

▰ Nonverbal – body movements, gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, and by touching
May be classified into two:
▰ Formal – takes place within prescribed, routine organizational work
arrangements
▰ Informal – communication is not defined by an organization’s
hierarchical structure

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 Direction and Flow of Communication

▰ Vertical – involves communication flow between people belonging to

different organizational levels
▰ Upward – is the flow of information from an employee who belongs
to a lower hierarchical level to the boss/manager who belongs to a
higher hierarchical level
▰ Downward – is the flow of information from the manager, who
belongs to a higher hierarchical level, to the
subordinates/employees, who belong to lower hierarchical levels

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 Direction and Flow of Communication

▰ Horizontal/Lateral – takes place among employees

belonging to the same hierarchical level
▰ Diagonal – entails communicating with someone or
others who belong to different departments/units
and different hierarchical levels

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 Communication Networks in Organizations

▰ Chain network – where communication flows according to the

usual formal chain of command, downward and upward
▰ Wheel network – where communication flows between a
leader and other members of their group/team
▰ All-channel network – where communication flows freely
among all members of a team

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 Barriers to Communication

▰ Filtering – the shaping of information communicated in order

to make it look good or advantageous to the receiver
▰ Emotions – the interpretation of communications may be
influenced by extreme emotions felt by the receiver
▰ Information overload – another barrier to good
communication since too many pieces of information
received may have a negative effect on a person’s processing
capacity

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 Barriers to Communication

▰ Defensiveness – the act of self-protection when people are

threatened by something or someone
▰ Language – could also hamper good communications because
words used may have different meanings to different people
belonging to different age, educational, or cultural group
▰ National culture – just like language, the prevailing national culture
may also cause problems in communication among members of an
organization

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 Overcoming Communication Barriers

▰ Using feedback – this is usually done by asking questions about a

memo sent to subordinates or by asking them to give their
comments or suggestions
▰ Using simple language – this is done by avoiding uncommon terms
and flowery words that may just cause misinterpretation
▰ Active listening – this means listening well in order to grasp the full
meaning of the communication

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 Overcoming Communication Barriers

▰ Controlling emotions – this is another method of

overcoming communication misinterpretation
▰ Observing body language – this also influences
how communication is interpreted

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Lesson 5
Management and Change and
Diversity in Organizations

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 Definition of Terms:

▰ Organizational Change – any alteration of people, structure,

or technology in organizations brought about by external or
internal forces which they encounter
▰ Organizational Diversity - the host of individual differences
that make people in organizations different from and similar
to each other

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 Types of Change

▰ Changes in people - based on people’s attitudes, values,

wants and needs, expectations, perceptions, and behaviors
change as time goes on, but changing them for the better is
not easy to do.

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 Types of Change

▰ Changes in Structure - due to changing conditions/situations

and changing strategies used, organizational structures may
also change according to work specialization,
departmentalization, change of command, span control,
centralization, formalization, and job redesign among others.

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 Types of Change

▰ Changes in Technology - technology changes usually refer to

changes in work processes and method used, introduction of
new equipment and work tools, automation, or
computerization. Competitive factors or innovations in
industries require administrators or companies to consider
such technological changes.

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 Managing Resistance to Change

▰ Change is considered by many organization

members as a threat. It is very common for people
to fear changing status quo, even if doing so might
bring benificial effects.

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 Managing Resistance to Change

▰ Education – employees have to be educated regarding the reasons for and

the relevance of change
▰ Participation – by allowing organization members to participate in decision-
making related to bringing about change in their company
▰ Facilitation and support – by facilitating or providing new skills training and
counselling for employees to minimize their fear of change
▰ Manipulation of information – by withholding damaging information about
change to make it acceptable to organization members

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 Managing Resistance to Change

▰ Selection of people – by selecting people who are open to

change to help disseminate the beneficial effects of change,
resistance to change is lessened
▰ Coercion – is the use of direct threats or force to make
people accept change; however, this method is perceived as
a form of bullying, so it is used only when extremely
necessary

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New Issues in Change
Management

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 Understanding Situational Factors

▰ Waiting for the appropriate time and

situation is suggested when bringing
about change in organizations.

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 Making Changes in Organizational Culture

▰ Change in organizational culture cannot be done

easily, because it is highly valued and ingrained
among the firm’s members.
▰ This must be done slowly to avoid violent
resistance.

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 Managing Workplace Diversity

▰ Workplace diversity in organizations is inevitable.

▰ It is a fact that organization members may differ in
age, gender, physical ability, ethnicity/race, culture,
values, attitudes, beliefs and personality, among
others.

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 Reduce the Potential Negative Effect of Diversity
through:

▰ A. encouraging employees to accept the

organization’s culture or its dominant values and;
▰ B. encouraging employees to accept differences
in the workplace.

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 Managing Workplace Diversity

▰ This can be accomplished by training in order to

improve the inherent negative relationship a
workgroup’s diversity or between its deep level its
deep level values and the organization’s culture
and dominant values.

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Lesson 6
Filipino and Foreign Cultures
in Organizations

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 Definition of Terms:

▰ Culture - a set of beliefs and values about how community

should act and do things
▰ Organizational Culture - a set of shared values and
norms/standards for behavior and expectations that
influence the interaction of organization members in order to
achieve their set mission, vision, goals, and objectives

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 Shared Values and Beliefs/ Practices of Filipinos

▰ Different people from around the world

have their own set of values or beliefs that
they share and consider significant as a
group or a community.

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 Three Primary Filipino Values

▰ Social Acceptance - this value’s focus in the desire of the

Filipinos to be accepted by and treated well by others
▰ Economic Security - this value emphasizes that one must
have financial stability
▰ Social Mobility - this value is concerned with his or her
desire to move up the social ladder

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Gerry Johnson’s cultural web

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 Filipino Beliefs and Practices

▰ Ningas Cogon
▰Manana Habit
▰Filipino Time

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 Influence of Filipinos’ Shared Values and
Beliefs/Practices on Organizational Management

▰ The Filipino values of social acceptance,

economic security, and social mobility may
have both positive and negative effect to
organizational management.

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 Influence by Foreign Culture on Organizational
Management

▰ A country’s culture impacts on the behavior of both

administrators/superiors and subordinates. Knowing their
beliefs and the values and their cultural dimensions will
make it easier for superiors to manage subordinates and for
subordinates to know the management style of their
superiors.
▰ Employees belonging to one culture will have better relations
with coemployees belonging to each other cultures because
of this.
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 Some examples cited by Kreitner and Kinicki
(2013) are the following cultural dimensions:

▰ Gender Egalitarianism - refers to the amount of

effort which must be put into minimizing gender
discrimination and role inequalities
▰ Assertiveness - refers to how confrontational and
dominant individuals should be in social
relationships

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 Some examples cited by Kreitner and Kinicki
(2013) are the following cultural dimensions:

▰ Performance Orientation - refers to how much

individuals should be rewarded for improvement
and excellence
▰ Humane Orientation - refers to how much society
should encourage and reward people for being
kind, fair, friendly, and generous

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THANKS!
Any questions?
You can find me at
@username & [email protected]

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