Michelson interferometer
Department of Physics
Subject code: PHY 304L
Aim: To determine the wavelength of a laser using the Michelson interferometer.
Apparatus:. Laser light source, Michelson interferometer kit, optical bench, meter scale.
Description of the apparatus:
Theory:
•Interferometers are used to precisely measure the wavelength of optical beams through the creation
of interference patterns . The Michelson interferometer is a historically important device which
provides simple interferometric configuration, useful for introducing basic principles.
•Light is a transverse wave. When two waves of same wavelength and amplitude travel through same
medium, their amplitudes combine. A wave of greater or lesser amplitude than the original will be the
result. The addition of amplitudes due to superposition of two waves is called interference.
Destructive interference:
• If the crest of one wave meets with the trough of another wave the resultant intensity will be zero
and the waves are said to be interfere destructively
• If the path difference between two waves is (n+1/2)λ , the interference between them is destructive, and a dark
fringe appears on the screen.
Constructive interference:
• In constructive interference, a bright fringe (band) is obtained on the screen. For constructive interference to
occur, the path difference between two beams must be an integral multiple mλ of the wavelength λ, where m is
the order, with m =0,+or -1,+or-2...
Thin film interference:
• The phenomenon where incident light wave is reflected by both upper and lower boundaries of thin
film get interfere to form a new wave commonly called thin film interference.
• In optics a thin film with the thickness of the order of one wavelength of light in the visible region
can be consider as thin film.
• Interference causes thin films of oil, water and soap bubbles and thin glass plates to appear color
when see under sun light.
• The brilliant colors seen in butterflies ,pea cocks feathers etc also due to interference.
Michelson Interferometer:
•The Michelson interferometer is the best example of what is called an amplitude-splitting
interferometer. It was invented in1893 by Albert Michelson, to measure a standard meter in units
of the wavelength of the red line of the cadmium spectrum.
•With an optical interferometer, one can measure distances directly in terms of wavelength of light
used, by counting the interference fringes that move when one or the other of two mirrors are
moved.
•The resulting reflected and transmitted waves are then re-directed by ordinary mirrors to a screen
where they superimpose to create fringes. This is known as interference by division of amplitude.
•This interferometer, used in 1817 in the famous Michelson- Morley experiment, demonstrated
the non-existence of an electromagnetic-wave-carrying ether, thus paving the way for the Special
theory of Relativity.
A simplified diagram of a Michelson interferometer is shown in the fig: 1.
•Light from a monochromatic source S is divided by a beam splitter (BS), which is oriented at an angle 45° to
the beam, producing two beams of equal intensity.
•The transmitted beam (T) travels to mirror M1 and it is reflected back to BS. 50% of the returning beam is
then reflected by the beam splitter and strikes the screen, E.
•The reflected beam (R) travels to mirror M2, where it is reflected. 50% of this beam passes straight through
beam splitter and reaches the screen.
•Since the reflecting surface of the beam splitter BS is the surface on the lower right, the light ray starting
from the source S and undergoing reflection at the mirror M2 passes through the beam splitter three
times, while the ray reflected at M1 travels through BS only once.
•The optical path length through the glass plate depends on its index of refraction, which causes an
optical path difference between the two beams.
•To compensate for this, a glass plate CP of the same thickness and index of refraction as that of BS is
introduced between M1 and BS. The recombined beams interfere and produce fringes at the screen E.
•The relative phase of the two beams determines whether the interference will be constructive or
destructive. By adjusting the inclination of M1 and M2, one can produce circular fringes, straight-line
fringes, or curved fringes. This lab uses circular fringes, shown in Fig. 1.
•From the screen, an observer sees M2 directly and the virtual
image M1' of the mirror M1, formed by reflection in the beam
splitter, as shown in Fig. 2.
•This means that one of the interfering beams comes from
M2 and the other beam appears to come from the virtual image
M1'. If the two arms of the interferometer are equal in length,
M1' coincides with M2.
•If they do not coincide, let the distance between them be d,
and consider a light ray from a point S. It will be reflected by
both M1' and M2, and the observer will see two virtual images,
S1 due to reflection at M1', and S2 due to reflection at M2.
•These virtual images will be separated by a distance 2d. If θ is
the angle with which the observer looks into the system, the
path difference between the two beams is 2dcosθ. When the
light that comes from M1 undergoes reflection at BS, a phase
change of π occurs, which corresponds to a path difference of
λ/2.
•Therefore, the total path difference between the two beams is,
Fig 2
The condition for constructive interference is then,
• For a given mirror separation d, a given wavelength λ, and order m, the angle of inclination θ is a
constant, and the fringes are circular. They are called fringes of equal inclination, or Haidinger
fringes.
• If M1' coincides with M2, d = 0, and the path difference between the interfering beams will be λ/2.
This corresponds to destructive interference, so the center of the field will be dark.
• If one of the mirrors is moved through a distance λ/4, the path difference changes by λ/2 and a
maximum is obtained. If the mirror is moved through another λ/4, a minimum is obtained; moving it
by another λ/4, again a maximum is obtained and so on.
• Because d is multiplied by cosθ, as d increases, new rings appear in the center faster than the rings
already present at the periphery disappear, and the field becomes more crowded with thinner rings
toward the outside. If d decreases, the rings contract, become wider and more sparsely distributed,
and disappear at the center.
• For destructive interference, the total path difference must be an integer number of wavelengths
plus a half wavelength,
• If the images S1 and S2 from the two mirrors are exactly the same distance away, d=0 and there is
no dependance on θ. This means that only one fringe is visible, the zero order destructive
interfrence fringe, where
and the observer sees a single, large, central dark spot with no surrounding rings.
Measurement of wavelength:
• Using the Michelson interferometer, the wavelength of light from a monochromatic source can be
determined. If M1 is moved forward or backward, circular fringes appear or disappear at the
centre. The mirror is moved through a known distance d and the number N of fringes appearing
or disappearing at the centre is counted. For one fringe to appear or disappear, the mirror must
be moved through a distance of λ/2. Knowing this, we can write,
so that the wavelength is,
Applications:
• The Michelson - Morley experiment is the best known application of Michelson
Interferometer.
• They are used for the detection of gravitational waves.
• Michelson Interferometers are widely used in astronomical Interferometry.
Procedure:
To find the wavelength of the laser source:
• The laser beam must strike at the center of the movable mirror and should be reflected directly back
into the laser aperture.
• Adjust the position of the beam splitter so that the beam is reflected to the fixed mirror.
•
•Adjust the angle of beam splitter to be 45 degrees. There will be two sets of bright spots on the screen,
one set from the fixed mirror and another from the movable mirror.
• Adjust the angle of the beam splitter to make the two sets of spots as close together as possible.
• With the screws on the back of the adjustable mirror, adjust the mirror’s tilt until the two sets of spots
on the screen coincide.
• Expand the laser beam slowly by rotating the collimating lens in front of the laser.
• Align the laser with the interferometer and make certain that the fringes are moving when the
micrometer screw is turned.
•Mark a point on the screen and note the micrometer reading.
•As the screw is moved, the fringes begin to displace. Count the number of fringes N that move past
the mark (either inward or outward). To avoid the effects of backlash in the micrometer screw, turn
the micrometer handle one full turn before starting the count.
•Note the micrometer readings at the beginning and end of the count. Calculate the distance d' the
mirror is moved, according to the beginning and ending micrometer readings. Repeat the procedure
several times. Average the readings.
• With a known wavelength laser, use d = Nλ/2 to calculate the actual distance moved. The
calibration constant of the interferometer is then k= d/d'. All subsequent distance measurements
with the micrometer should be multiplied by the calibration constant k. Ideally, k would be exactly
1, but factors such as wear and thermal expansion can cause it to vary.
• Once the calibration constant is known, if the laser source has an unknown wavelength, it can be
calculated with the same equation.
Procedure for performing simulator:
• Using the combo box Choose laser, select the desired laser source.
• Switch ON the laser source using Power On button.
• A blurred fringe pattern will appear on the screen, shown in the zoomed view at the upper right
corner of the simulator. Make the fringes sharp using the slider Adjust Mirror. Once a coarse
adjustment has been made with the slider, the right and left arrow keys on the keyboard provide
fine control of this adjustment.
• Using the slider Adjust micrometer, slowly change the micrometer distance. The fringes will
displace. The distance moved for a fixed number of fringes can be noted from the values
displayed above the slider. The light blue up and down arrows provided in the simulator can also
be used to move the micrometer. A third way to move the micrometer, useful due to the fine
control it provides, is with the left and right arrow keys on the keyboard. They must first be
activated by dragging the slider with the mouse. (In the simulator, the micrometer reading is
offset by a fixed amount, so that it is not possible to set d = 0 to get a single large dark spot.)
• The wavelength of the laser source can be calculated using the equation (2) from the theory
page. (The calibration constant k for the simulator is exactly 1.)
• The Reset button resets the whole experimental arrangement to its default (starting)
configuration.
• The Show results button displays the results after doing the experiment.
• The experiment can be repeated for different laser sources and for glass plates of different
thickness.
Observations and calculations:
Least Count = ..... cm
Calibration constant of the apparatus= .....
No: of fringes, N =.....
Distance moved for N fringes, d =...... cm.
Then, λ= 2Δd/N
Result:
The wavelength of the given laser source = .......... nm.
