ECE 3074

AC Circuits Laboratory
First Things
• The semester will be challenging because of the
pandemic
• Don’t forget to record the class. (this is to remind me)
• No matter what happens with the technology, you will
have a recorded class to fall back on.
• For now, use the zoom chat to ask questions and provide
feedback
• Let me know if my audio is bad, I’ve forgotten to share the
screen, I need to comb my hair, etc.
• If I am not responding to the chat, unmute and tell me to look
at it.
• Poll #1
This class can be better than it
ever has been
• But it depends on all of us upping our game.
• Time management – the last minute isn’t going to cut it
• Ask questions – you will help everyone
• If you don’t want to waste time, avoid confusion
• Piazza is anonymous/anonymous, you have no excuse
• I need some students to look at, so here is the plan
• Pick 4 students at random, without replacement, to turn on
their video
• They get first shot at my questions. Lifelines from participants
list.
So what are we going to do?
• Design, simulate, construct, and troubleshoot simple AC
circuits
• Measurement techniques using an oscilloscope and function
generator.
• Circuit simulation
• Design
• Winding inductors
• Oscillators
• Zobel Networks
• Impedance matching with transformers
• Passive filters
• Active filters
• Instrumentation Amplifiers
Prerequisites and Co-requisites
• 1004:
• Purchased basic equipment. Received parts kit
• Use of meter, oscilloscope, function generator
• Know the resistor color code and capacitor coding.
• 2024, 2214: Basics of diodes, BJTs, and MOSFETs
• 2704: Fourier analysis. Sinusoidal steady state.
Frequency response.
• 3004:
• This is where you learn the theory
• We will try to stay synchronized with the course. Much of our
material will extend what you learn in the course.
Course Structure
• Lecture every week to introduce the labs and tools.
• Each lab has a worksheet due Tuesdays at 3:00pm.
Should take 2-3 hours.
• Questions:
• Piazza – This is the only way to ask e-questions of a non-
personal nature. Anonymous/Anonymous
• GTA office hours
• Midterm and comprehensive Final (week before
last week of classes).
Other Syllabus Information
• Read the syllabus.
• Lab 0 has been assigned to ensure to make sure you have
all the required equipment and that the required
software (ADII and LTspice) is working.
• Honor System:
• Discussion of ideas and approaches with other students is
permitted and encouraged for labs, but detailed circuit
topologies, component values, design equations, etc. should
not be discussed. All assignments must be completed
individually and reflect your understanding.
• Accommodations: See me during the first week of class.
The current plan:
Worksheet Due Date Week   Lab Lecture
  1   Read syllabus
Install LTSpice
Ensure you have a working scope, voltmeter, 5V
power supply, and protoboard.
Lab 0 assigned
 09/01/20 2   LTSpice (Quizzes start)
09/08/20 3   AC Scope Measurements and winding inductors

09/15/20 4   Phasor measurements

09/22/20 5   Wien Bridge Oscillator
09/29/20 6   Impedance Compensation: Zobel Networks
10/6/20 7   Impedance Matching: Transformers
10/13/20 8   Midterm (during class time)
10/20/20 9   Passive Filters
10/27/20 10   Application: Crossover networks and L pads
11/3/20 11   Instrumentation amplifier design
11/10/20 12   Active Filters
11/17/20 13   Question and Answer Session
 12/01/20 14   Final Exam (during class time)
Reading Resistors
and Capacitors
You should already know all of this!
Resistor values and tolerance
• Small resistors are color coded with the resistance value
in Ω.
• The first two digits for the standard values in your kits:
10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 51, 56, 68, 82
• Each value is multiplied by a power of 10, so the 12 value can
represent standard resistances of 12Ω, 120Ω, 1.2kΩ, 12kΩ, 120kΩ
and so on, up to 1MΩ.
• Resistors have a tolerance rating that says how far they
may vary from the nominal value.
• Your kit resistors have a 5% tolerance and can vary as much as 5%
above and below the nominal color code value.
• A 100Ω, 5%resistor is acceptable if it has an actual value
95Ω ≤ R ≤ 105Ω
4 Band Color Code
Examples: What is the resistance

12
Resistor power ratings
• Our kit resistors are
rated for ½ watt
• Similar resistors can be
rated as 1/8 , ¼, ½, 1, or
2 watts. They just are
somewhat bigger or
smaller
• Power resistors get much
bigger and can handle
much more power
Variable Resistors
Reading capacitors
• Large caps have their values printed directly on them, for example, 47μF.
• Smaller caps usually have a three number code, just like resistors, so the first
two numbers form a two digit number that is then multiplied by 10 raised to the
3rd digit power. The units are pico farads.
• 475 => 47x10^5 = 4700000pF = 4700nF = 4.7μF
• The exceptions are multipliers (3rd digit) of 8 and 9
• 8 means multiply by 0.01, 9 means multiply by .1
• See [Link] for
more info
Compact Capacitor Codes
Use the correct suffix
• You need to know the standard suffixes
• M = mega = 10^6
• K = kilo = 10^3
• m = milli = 10^-3
• μ = micro = 10^-6
• n = nano = 10^-9
• p = pico = 10^-12

• Your answers should be between .1 and 999,

so
• 120,000Ω would be written 120kΩ
• 100000pF would be written 100nF or 0.1uF
Operational Amplifiers
Op-Amps
These are the key components of most low-frequency
analog circuit design.
What is the function of this
circuit?
What is the function of this
circuit?
Op-Amps Vout = A (V+ − V-)

• Op-amps are differential amplifiers with two key

characteristics:
• Very high input resistance (ideally infinite, but in practice 1MΩ -
1TΩ)
• Very high open-loop gain (ideally infinite, but in practice > 105)
• 3 main use cases
• No feedback (open-loop): Behaves as comparator
• V+ > V-: Vout saturated at positive rail
• V+ < V-: Vout saturated at negative rail
• Positive feedback: Schmitt Trigger (hysteresis)
• Vout is saturated at one of the power supply rails
• Negative feedback: Behaves as a linear amplifier
• Vout stays between the rails and Vout = Gain * Vin
Operational Amplifiers: Negative
Feedback Case
• Two key op amp characteristics
• High open-loop gain Vout = A (V+ − V-)

• High input resistance

• These characteristics allow us to make the
following assumptions
• No current flows into the op-amp from the V+ or
V- terminals
• V+ = V- as long as the op-amp output is not
saturated at the rail
• In the negative feedback case, these
characteristics allow for very simple analysis
of most op-amp circuits.
5 standard op-amp configurations
using negative feedback
1. Inverting Amplifier
2. Summing Amplifier
3. Non-inverting Amplifier
4. Buffer
5. Differential Amplifier

Note: You must memorize all of these circuits and

their gains so that you can recognize them or design
them by inspection.
Inverting Amplifier
• 

•
• Gain =
• Note that the gain is set by resistors and so can
be very accurate
• Input resistance is
Summing
Amplifier
• 

• If the input resistors are the same

• Gain =
• Input Resistance = R
Non-inverting Amplifier
• 

• Gain =
• Input resistance is very high
Buffer
•  Special case of NI amp

• Gain = 1
• Very high input resistance
• Very low output resistance
• Used to transform a source with a large Thevenin
resistance into a source with near zero Thevenin
resistance.
Differential Amplifier
• 

• By superposition (combination of inverting and non-

inverting amplifiers)

• Differential amplifier with gain set by resistor ratio.

• Feedback allows us to take a diff amp with large and
unknown gain and create a diff amp with an accurate
gain.
Magic Op-Amp Formula
• Want
 
• Define
• g = ground input
• Choose
• Set
• If , connect to positive terminal through
• If , connect to negative terminal through
• Same for ground input
• This formula subsumes all previous configurations
Example calculation
Aside: What component values
should we use in op-amp circuits
• Resistors:
• Ideally we would keep values between 10K and 100K
• Lower values can use excessive current
• Higher values can increase noise
• This is not a hard and fast rule. Relax as needed, but be aware of
possible consequences.
• Capacitors
• Ideally we would keep values between 1nF and several uF
• Lower values will be influenced by parasitic caps (even op-amp
input cap)
• Higher values will drive you to polarized electrolytics, which should
never be used for signal processing.
• Again, relax as needed, but be aware of possible consequences.
Questions?
How can we improve ECE labs?
How can we improve ECE labs?
• Quizzes should not ask picky questions
• Some TAs could not answer questions well
• Not enough space and TA support
• Some questions obvious to the instructor can be very hard for beginners
• Labs should be synched with course
• Traditional fixed labs are more effective
• Labs poorly written or confusing
• Have a lab buddy
• Discuss common pitfalls
• Show what results should look like
• Do more examples
Reading a Frequency
Response Plot
So what is the frequency response
of a system?
• Describes
  how the magnitude and phase of an input
sinusoid is shifted between the input and output as a
function of frequency

• At the frequency response is .

• Typically we plot the gain and phase as a function of
frequency
• Gain is typically plotted in units of dB (decibel)
• A decibel is defined in terms of a power ratio:
• If we think of the input and output voltages as driving the same
resistance, then we can think of a decibel as:
• Phase is typically plotted in degrees
A sample frequency response
from the Velleman scope

• Frequency axis is
typically logarithmic
• Gain is solid line, phase
is dotted line.
• What is gain, phase,
and frequency at the
peak response?
• What is the output of
the system in response
to a unit sinusoid at
40kHz?
A sample frequency response
from the ADII
About oscilloscope probes
• Oscilloscopes typically use BNC connectors and
coaxial cables to connect to probes
More on scope probes
• Probes measure single-ended,
not differential, voltages.
• The other lead of the probe is
grounded to the oscilloscope
ground. It must also be tied to
your circuit ground for the
measurement to make sense.
• So you can’t measure the
voltage across a resistor, unless
one end of the resistor is
grounded.
More on scope probes
• Probes are not wires
• Cables that end in simple
alligator or IC clips may just
be wires
• True probes, especially 10x
probes, have components
inside and you can’t use them
as simple wires (for example
to connect your function
generator to your circuit!)
 More on scope probes
• At low frequencies, you can use
straight through cables (BNC on one
end and alligator or IC clips on the
other).
• Straight through cables, essentially wires,
will introduce ringing on fast transitions –
the act of measuring will affect your
circuit.
• Straight through cables have a lot of
capacitance, which can affect high
frequency circuits.
• Straight through cables do not alter the
input resistance of the scope, which is
1MΩ.

42
 Even more on scope probes
• At higher frequencies you want to use an oscilloscope
probe.
• x1 probes add some resistance to help reduce
ringing.
• x10 probes increase the scope’s input resistance
and reduce its capacitance by a factor of 10, which
reduces the impact on high frequency circuits.
• Input resistance will be 10MΩ
• Essentially looks like a 10:1 divider, so only a
tenth of the voltage makes it to the scope
input. Allows you to measure higher voltages
• Should be calibrated to oscilloscope input
(use a 1KHz square wave and adjust the
probe until the edges are square.)