What is Research Design?
A research design is a framework or
blueprint for conducting the marketing
research project. It details the
procedures necessary for obtaining the
information needed to structure or
solve marketing research problems
Types of Research design
Descriptive Research Design:
Survey and Observation
A Classification of Survey Methods
Survey
Methods
Telephone Personal Mail Electronic
In-Home Mall Computer-Assisted Internet
E-mail
Intercept Personal
Interviewing
Traditional Computer-Assisted
Mail Mail
Telephone Telephone
Interview Panel
Interviewing
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Response Rate
Survey response rate is broadly defined as the percentage of
the total attempted interviews that are completed.
Perceived Anonymity
Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents' perceptions that
their identities will not be discerned by the interviewer or the
researcher.
Social Desirability/Sensitive Information
Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to give
answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not they are
true.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Potential for Interviewer Bias
The extent of the interviewer's role determines the
potential for bias.
Speed
The total time taken for administering the survey to
the entire sample.
Cost
The total cost of administering the survey and
collecting the data.
Observation Methods
Structured versus Unstructured Observation
For structured observation, the researcher
specifies in detail what is to be observed and
how the measurements are to be recorded,
e.g., an auditor performing inventory analysis
in a store.
In unstructured observation, the observer
monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that
seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g.,
observing children playing with new toys.
Observation Methods
Disguised versus Undisguised Observation
In disguised observation, the respondents
are unaware that they are being observed.
Disguise may be accomplished by using one-
way mirrors, hidden cameras, or
inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers
may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.
In undisguised observation, the
respondents are aware that they are under
observation.
Observation Methods
Natural versus Contrived Observation
Natural observation involves observing
behavior as it takes places in the
environment. For example, one could
observe the behavior of respondents eating
fast food in Burger King.
In contrived observation, respondents'
behavior is observed in an artificial
environment, such as a test kitchen.
A Classification of Observation Methods
Observation Methods
Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace
Observation Observation Analysis Analysis
Observation Methods
Personal Observation
A researcher observes actual behavior
as it occurs.
The observer does not attempt to
manipulate the phenomenon being
observed but merely records what takes
place.
For example, a researcher might record
traffic counts and observe traffic flows
in a department store.
Observation Methods
Mechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
the AC Nielsen audimeter (set top box)
turnstiles that record the number of people entering
or leaving a building.
On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
Optical scanners in supermarkets
Do require respondent involvement.
eye-tracking monitors
pupilometers
psychogalvanometers
voice pitch analyzers
devices measuring response latency
Observation Methods
Audit
The researcher collects data by examining
physical records or performing inventory
analysis.
Data are collected personally by the
researcher.
The data are based upon counts, usually of
physical objects.
Retail and wholesale audits conducted by
marketing research suppliers are known as
syndicated data
Observation Methods
Content Analysis
The objective, systematic, and quantitative
description of the manifest content of a
communication.
The unit of analysis may be words, characters
(individuals or objects), themes
(propositions), space and time measures
(length or duration of the message), or topics
(subject of the message).
Analytical categories for classifying the units
are developed and the communication is
broken down according to prescribed rules.
Observation Methods
Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past
behavior.
The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to
gauge the readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was
used to estimate share of listening audience of various radio
stations.
The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to
assess the affluence of customers.
The magazines people donated to charity were used to
determine people's favorite magazines.
Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine
browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.
Causal Research Design:
Experimentation
Concept of Causality
A statement such as "X causes Y " will have the
following meaning to an ordinary person and to a
scientist.
____________________________________________________
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning
____________________________________________________
X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of
possible causes of Y.
X must always lead to YThe occurrence of X makes the
(X is a deterministic occurrence of Y more probable
cause of Y). (X is a probabilistic cause of Y).
It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is a
that X is a cause of Y. cause of Y. At best, we can
infer that X is a cause of Y.
____________________________________________________
Conditions for Causality
Concomitant variation is the extent to
which a cause, X, and an effect, Y, occur
together or vary together in the way predicted
by the hypothesis under consideration.
The time order of occurrence condition
states that the causing event must occur
either before or simultaneously with the
effect; it cannot occur afterwards.
The absence of other possible causal
factors means that the factor or variable
being investigated should be the only possible
causal explanation.
Evidence of Concomitant Variation between
Purchase of Fashion Clothing and Education
Purchase of Fashion Clothing, Y
High Low
500 (100%)
Education, X
High 363 (73%) 137 (27%)
Low 322 (64%) 178 (36%) 500 (100%)
Purchase of Fashion Clothing By
Income and Education
Low Income High Income
Purchase Purchase
High Low High Low
122 (61%) 78 (39%) High 241 (80%) 59 (20%) 300
Education
High 200 (100%)
Education
171 (57%) 129 (43%) 300 (100%) Low 151 (76%) 49 (24%) 200
Low
Definitions and Concepts
Independent variables are variables or alternatives
that are manipulated and whose effects are measured
and compared, e.g., price levels.
Test units are individuals, organizations, or other
entities whose response to the independent variables
or treatments is being examined, e.g., consumers or
stores.
Dependent variables are the variables which
measure the effect of the independent variables on
the test units, e.g., sales, profits, and market shares.
Extraneous variables are all variables other than
the independent variables that affect the response of
the test units, e.g., store size, store location, and
competitive effort.
Experimental Design
An experimental design is a set of
procedures specifying
the test units and how these units are to
be divided into homogeneous subsamples,
what independent variables or treatments
are to be manipulated,
what dependent variables are to be
measured, and
how the extraneous variables are to be
controlled.
Validity in Experimentation
Internal validity refers to whether the
manipulation of the independent variables or
treatments actually caused the observed
effects on the dependent variables. Control
of extraneous variables is a necessary
condition for establishing internal validity.
External validity refers to whether the
cause-and-effect relationships found in the
experiment can be generalized. To what
populations, settings, times, independent
variables and dependent variables can the
results be projected?
Extraneous Variables
History refers to specific events that are external to
the experiment but occur at the same time as the
experiment.
Maturation (MA) refers to changes in the test units
themselves that occur with the passage of time.
Testing effects are caused by the process of
experimentation. Typically, these are the effects on
the experiment of taking a measure on the
dependent variable before and after the presentation
of the treatment.
The main testing effect (MT) occurs when a prior
observation affects a latter observation.
Extraneous Variables
In the interactive testing effect (IT), a prior
measurement affects the test unit's response to the
independent variable.
Instrumentation (I) refers to changes in the
measuring instrument, in the observers or in the
scores themselves.
Statistical regression effects (SR) occur when test
units with extreme scores move closer to the average
score during the course of the experiment.
Selection bias (SB) refers to the improper
assignment of test units to treatment conditions.
Mortality (MO) refers to the loss of test units while
the experiment is in progress.
Controlling Extraneous Variables
Randomization refers to the random assignment of
test units to experimental groups by using random
numbers. Treatment conditions are also randomly
assigned to experimental groups.
Matching involves comparing test units on a set of
key background variables before assigning them to
the treatment conditions.
Statistical control involves measuring the
extraneous variables and adjusting for their effects
through statistical analysis.
Design control involves the use of experiments
designed to control specific extraneous variables.
A Classification of Experimental Designs
Pre-experimental designs do not employ
randomization procedures to control for
extraneous factors: the one-shot case study,
the one-group pretest-posttest design, and
the static-group.
In true experimental designs, the
researcher can randomly assign test units to
experimental groups and treatments to
experimental groups: the pretest-posttest
control group design, the posttest-only
control group design, and the Solomon four-
group design.
A Classification of Experimental Designs
Quasi-experimental designs result when
the researcher is unable to achieve full
manipulation of scheduling or allocation of
treatments to test units but can still apply
part of the apparatus of true
experimentation: time series and multiple
time series designs.
A statistical design is a series of basic
experiments that allows for statistical control
and analysis of external variables:
randomized block design, Latin square
design, and factorial designs.
A Classification of Experimental Designs
Experimental Designs
Pre-experimental True Quasi Statistical
Experimental Experimental
One-Shot Case Pretest-Posttest Time Series Randomized
Study Control Group Blocks
One Group Posttest: Only Multiple Time Latin Square
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Series
Static Group Solomon Four- Factorial
Group Design
One-Shot Case Study
X 01
A single group of test units is exposed to a
treatment X.
A single measurement on the dependent
variable is taken (01).
There is no random assignment of test units.
The one-shot case study is more appropriate
for exploratory than for conclusive research.
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
01 X 02
A group of test units is measured twice.
There is no control group.
The treatment effect is computed as
02 – 01.
The validity of this conclusion is
questionable since extraneous variables
are largely uncontrolled.
Static Group Design
EG: X 01
CG: 02
A two-group experimental design.
The experimental group (EG) is exposed to the
treatment, and the control group (CG) is not.
Measurements on both groups are made only
after the treatment.
Test units are not assigned at random.
The treatment effect would be measured as 01
- 02.
True Experimental Designs:
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
EG: R 01 X 02
CG: R 03 04
Test units are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the
control group.
A pretreatment measure is taken on each group.
The treatment effect (TE) is measured as:( 02 - 01) - (04 - 03).
Selection bias is eliminated by randomization.
The other extraneous effects are controlled as follows:
02 – 01= TE + H + MA + MT + IT + I + SR + MO
04 – 03= H + MA + MT + I + SR + MO
= EV (Extraneous Variables)
The experimental result is obtained by:
(02 - 01) - (04 - 03) = TE + IT
Interactive testing effect is not controlled.
Posttest-Only Control Group Design
EG : R X 01
CG : R 02
The treatment effect is obtained by
TE = 01 - 02
Except for pre-measurement, the
implementation of this design is very
similar to that of the pretest-posttest
control group design.
Solomon Four-Group
Quasi-Experimental Designs:
Time Series Design
01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010
There is no randomization of test units
to treatments.
The timing of treatment presentation,
as well as which test units are exposed
to the treatment, may not be within the
researcher's control.
Multiple Time Series Design
EG : 01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010
CG : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 010
If the control group is carefully
selected, this design can be an
improvement over the simple time
series experiment.
Can test the treatment effect twice:
against the pretreatment measurements
in the experimental group and against
the control group.
Statistical Designs
Statistical designs consist of a series of basic
experiments that allow for statistical control and analysis
of external variables and offer the following advantages:
The effects of more than one independent variable can
be measured.
Specific extraneous variables can be statistically
controlled.
Economical designs can be formulated when each test
unit is measured more than once.
The most common statistical designs are the randomized
block design, the Latin square design, and the factorial
design.
Randomized Block Design
Is useful when there is only one major
external variable, such as store size,
that might influence the dependent
variable.
The test units are blocked, or grouped,
on the basis of the external variable.
By blocking, the researcher ensures
that the various experimental and
control groups are matched closely on
the external variable.
Randomized Block Design
Treatment Groups
Block Store Commercial Commercial Commercial
Number Patronage A B C
1 Heavy A B C
2 Medium A B C
3 Low A B C
4 None A B C
Latin Square Design
Allows the researcher to statistically control two noninteracting
external variables as well as to manipulate the independent
variable.
Each external or blocking variable is divided into an equal
number of blocks, or levels.
The independent variable is also divided into the same number
of levels.
A Latin square is conceptualized as a table, with the rows and
columns representing the blocks in the two external variables.
The levels of the independent variable are assigned to the cells
in the table.
The assignment rule is that each level of the independent
variable should appear only once in each row and each column,
Latin Square Design
Interest in the Store
Store Patronage High Medium Low
Heavy B A C
Medium C B A
Low and none A C B
Factorial Design
Is used to measure the effects of two or
more independent variables at various
levels.
A factorial design may also be
conceptualized as a table.
In a two-factor design, each level of
one variable represents a row and each
level of another variable represents a
column.
Factorial Design
Amount of Humor
Amount of Store No Medium High
Information Humor Humor Humor
Low A B C
Medium D E F
High G H I
