Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity,
and the Origin of Igneous Rocks
The Rock Cycle
• A rock is a naturally formed,
consolidated material usually
composed of grains of one or
more minerals
• The rock cycle shows how one
type of rocky material gets
transformed into another
– Representation of how rocks are
formed, broken down, and processed
in response to changing conditions
– Processes may involve interactions
of geosphere with hydrosphere,
atmosphere and/or biosphere
– Arrows indicate possible process
paths within the cycle
The Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics
• Magma is created by melting of rock
above a subduction zone
• Less dense magma rises and cools
to form igneous rock
• Igneous rock exposed at surface
gets weathered into sediment
• Sediments transported to low areas, Convergent plate boundary
buried and hardened into sedimentary rock
• Sedimentary rock heated and squeezed at depth to form
metamorphic rock
• Metamorphic rock may heat up and melt at depth to form magma
Igneous Rocks
• Magma is molten rock
• Igneous rocks form when magma
cools and solidifies
– Intrusive igneous rocks form when
magma solidifies underground Granite
• Granite is a common example
– Extrusive igneous rocks form when
magma solidifies at the Earth’s
surface (lava)
• Basalt is a common example
Basalt
Igneous Rock Textures
• Texture refers to the size, shape and
arrangement of grains or other constituents
within a rock
• Texture of igneous rocks is primarily
controlled by cooling rate
Fine-grained igneous rock
• Extrusive igneous rocks cool quickly at or
near Earth’s surface and are typically fine-
grained (most crystals <1 mm)
• Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly deep
beneath Earth’s surface and are typically
coarse-grained (most crystals >1 mm) Coarse-grained igneous rock
Special Igneous Textures
• A pegmatite is an extremely coarse-grained
igneous rock (most crystals >5 cm) formed
when magma cools very slowly at depth
• A glassy texture contains no crystals at all,
and is formed by extremely rapid cooling Pegmatitic igneous rock
• A porphyritic texture includes two distinct
crystal sizes, with the larger having formed
first during slow cooling underground and
the small forming during more rapid cooling
at the Earth’s surface Porphyritic igneous rock
Igneous Rock Identification
• Igneous rock names are based on texture (grain size) and
mineralogic composition
• Textural classification
– Plutonic rocks (gabbro-diorite-granite) are coarse-grained and cooled
slowly at depth
– Volcanic rocks (basalt-andesite-rhyolite) are typically fine-grained and
cooled rapidly at the Earth’s surface
• Compositional classification
– Mafic rocks (gabbro-basalt) contain abundant dark-colored
ferromagnesian minerals
– Intermediate rocks (diorite-andesite) contain roughly equal amounts of
dark- and light-colored minerals
– Felsic rocks (granite-rhyolite) contain abundant light-colored minerals
Igneous Rock Identification
• Igneous rock names are based on texture (grain size) and
mineralogic composition
Chemistry (mineral content)
Igneous Rock Chemistry
• Rock chemistry, particularly silica (SiO2) content, determines
mineral content and general color of igneous rocks
– Mafic rocks have ~50% silica, by weight, and contain dark-colored
minerals that are abundant in iron, magnesium and calcium
• Intrusive/extrusive mafic rocks - gabbro/basalt
– Felsic (silicic) rocks have >65% silica, by weight, and contain light-
colored minerals that are abundant in silica, aluminum, sodium and
potassium
• Intrusive/extrusive felsic rocks - granite/rhyolite
– Intermediate rocks have silica contents between those of mafic and
felsic rocks
• Intrusive/extrusive intermediate rocks - diorite/andesite
– Ultramafic rocks have <45% silica, by weight, and are composed
almost entirely of dark-colored ferromagnesian minerals
• Most common ultramafic rock is peridotite (intrusive)
Intrusive Rock Bodies
• Intrusive rocks exist in bodies or structures that penetrate
or cut through pre-existing country rock
• Intrusive bodies are given names based on their size,
shape and relationship to country rock
– Shallow intrusions: Dikes and sills
• Form <2 km beneath Earth’s surface
• Chill and solidify fairly quickly in
cool country rock
• Generally composed of Insert new Fig. 3.11 here
fine-grained rocks
Intrusive Rock Bodies
• Intrusive rocks exist in bodies or structures that penetrate
or cut through pre-existing country rock
• Intrusive bodies are given names based on their size,
shape and relationship to country rock
– Deep intrusions: Plutons
• Form at considerable depth beneath
Earth’s surface when rising blobs of
magma (diapirs) get trapped within
the crust
• Crystallize slowly in warm
country rock
• Generally composed of
coarse-grained rocks
Intrusive Rock Bodies
• Volcanic neck
– Shallow intrusion formed when magma
solidifies in throat of volcano
• Dike
– Tabular intrusive structure that cuts across
Light-colored dikes
any layering in country rock
• Sill
– Tabular intrusive structure that parallels
layering in country rock
• Pluton
– Large, blob-shaped intrusive body formed Basaltic sill
of coarse-grained igneous rock, commonly
granitic
– Small plutons (exposed over <100 km2) are
called stocks, large plutons (exposed over
>100 km2) are called batholiths Sierra Nevada batholith
Deep intrusive structures:
Batholiths
• Surface exposure >
100 km2
The Big Picture
What causes rocks to melt?
The internal Earth is hot.
Temperature increases downward
Yet the interior of the Earth is mostly solid
Melts occur by three processes:
Decompression melting
Heating
Water-flux melting
1) Decrease Pressure
Decompression
melting: LIQUID
Normal conditions:
Mantle is not hot
enough to melt
SOLID
1) Decrease Pressure
Decompression
melting:
Move mantle rocks up
toward the surface –
decrease the pressure at
a given temperature
2) Increase Temperature
Normal conditions:
Mantle is not hot
enough to melt
2. Increase Temperature
Increase
temperature of
rocks at a given
depth
3. Change composition (add H2O)
Water decreases the
melting temperature of
hot rock
= FLUX MELTING
Fluxing effect- Used in
foundries. Add flux
and metal melts at a
lower temperature
Normal conditions:
Mantle is not hot enough to
melt
3. Change composition (add H2O)
Water decreases the
melting temperature of
hot rock
= FLUX MELTING
Fluxing effect- Used in
foundries. Add flux
and metal melts at a
lower temperature
Add water to the mantle.
Change its composition and
thus its melting temperature
Plate tectonics and melting
Decompression melting
Divergent margins
Hot spots
Heating
Hot spots
Flux melting
Convergent margins
Divergent Boundary
Hot Spots (e.g. Hawaii)
Convergent Margins- flux melting
Most magma is generated by melting the mantle (makes a mafic
melt) but we see a whole range of compositions from mafic to
felsic. How do we get different compositions?
or: Why is continental crust felsic, not mafic?
Crystallization (differentiation)
Assimilation
Magma mixing
1) Crystallization
Bowen’s Reaction Series
Magma Crystallization and
Melting Sequence
• Minerals crystallize in a predictable order (and melt
in the reverse order), over a large temperature range,
as described by Bowen’s Reaction Series
• Discontinuous branch
– Ferromagnesian minerals (olivine, pyroxene, amphibole,
biotite) crystallize in sequence with decreasing temperature
– As one mineral becomes chemically
unstable in the remaining magma,
another begins to form
• Continuous branch
– Plagioclase feldspar forms with a
chemical composition that evolves
(from Ca-rich to Na-rich) with
decreasing temperature
Bowen’s Reaction Series
Lessons from Bowen’s Reaction Series
• Large variety of igneous rocks is produced by large
variety of magma compositions
• Mafic magmas will crystallize into basalt or gabbro if
early-formed minerals are not removed from the magma
• Intermediate magmas will similarly crystallize into
diorite or andesite if minerals are not removed
• Separation of early-formed ferromagnesian minerals
from a magma body increases the silica content of the
remaining magma
• Minerals melt in the reverse order of that in which they
crystallize from a magma
2) Crustal Assimilation
Evidence for crustal assimilation
Xenoliths (xeno = foreign; lith = rock)
3) Magma mixing
