BIOLOGY
Смеянов Владимир Владиславович, кмн
Vladimir Smeianov, PhD
[email protected] G. Tannock, Microbiology Today, feb. 2008
Lecture 2: The Cell. The Cell theory.
The Flows of Energy and Molecules
in the Cell.
1. Cell is the elementary unit of life
2. Modern state of the cell theory
3. The main forms of cellular organization
4. The structure, properties and functions of an elementary
membrane
5. The flows of molecules in a cell
6. The flows of energy in a cell
Cell is the elementary unit of life
• The term “cell” was proposed by
Robert Hooke in 1665
• Hooke described the pores, or "cells"
in thin slices of cork he viewed under
microscope
• Hooke had discovered plant cells, or
more precisely, he observed the cell
walls in cork tissue
• Hooke used the term "cells“ as the
structures he saw reminded him of
the cells of a monastery
• Hooke also reported seeing similar
structures in wood and in other
plants
Cell is the elementary unit of life
• In 1676, Van Leeuwenhoek described the first
observation of live single-celled organisms using
his high-power (up to x500) microscopes
• In 1825, a Czech scientist Jan Evangelista
Purkyně described semi-liquid, gelatinous
contents of the cell and called it a "protoplasm"
(Greek protos - first, plasma – an entity,
formation, a thing formed)
• In 1831, Scottish botanist Robert Brown
described the cell nucleus
Cell is the elementary unit of life
• In 1839, German zoologist Theodor Schwann,
based on the earlier works of Matthias Schleiden
and Johannes Peter Müller, proposed the cell
theory by declaring that "All living things are
composed of cells and cell products”
1) The cell - the basic structural unit of plants and
animals
2) The formation of cells results in the development
and differentiation of tissues of plants and animals
Cell is the elementary unit of life
In 1858 German pathologist
Rudolf Virchow published the
work "Cellular Pathology", in
which he made two important
provisions:
1) Each cell originates from
another cell as the result of
division
2) The reason for all diseases of
the body are changes in the
structure and functions of
cells
Modern state of the cell theory
• All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
(the unit of life – the structural, functional and genetic
unit – open self-regulated system with constant flows
of energy and molecules) - Hook, Schwann
• Cells arise from pre-existing cells - Virchow; all cells
have similarities in structure and composition
• Cells contain hereditary info of the organism and pass
it to daughter cells
• All metabolic reactions of an organism take place in
cells
• The cells of multicellular organisms perform different
functions and form specialized tissues - Schwann
Non-cellular life-forms require cells for propagation
Cytology studies the structure, chemical composition,
reproduction and development, the interaction of cells in
a multicellular organism (Latin cytos - cell, logos - science)
The main forms of cellular organization
• Prokaryotes do not have an organized nucleus, genetic
apparatus is presented by circular DNA (nucleoid)not
associated with proteins (histones)-nucleoid
The main forms of cellular organization
• The most primitive of prokaryotes are those of genus
Mycoplasma. They appeared approx. 3 billion years
ago. Size 0.1-0.25 µm
• Most of mycoplasmas are facultative (conditional)
symbionts and parasites of mammals, insects and
plants
• Unlike viruses they are capable of self-replication,
unlike bacteria they don’t have no cell wall
• Mycoplasmas may affect respiratory and urinary tracts,
may cause intrauterine infections
The main forms of cellular organization
• Eukaryotes have a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear
membrane
• The genetic apparatus is a complex structure of DNA
associated with proteins – histones
• The internal contents of the cell - the protoplasm -
composed of cytoplasm and karyoplasm (nucleus)
• The cytoplasm consists of hyaloplasm or cytosol
(cytoplasmic matrix), organelles and inclusions
• Cell is covered with an envelope, the main
component of which is the elementary (biological)
membrane
Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Organization One-celled or a colony One-celled, colony,
multicellular
Size Small (10 um max) Large (100 um)
Cytoplasm no membrane-bound all organelles are present
organelles
Internal membrane system mesosomes multiple membrane
organelles
Flagella simple complex
Cytoskeleton none (MreB) microfilaments and
microtubules
Nucleus no membrane, no histones, double nuclear membrane,
no mitotic apparatus nucleolus, mitotic apparatus
Chromosomes one chr per cell, no histones several to many pairs of chr
per cell, contain histones
RNA and Proteins transcription and translation separated
not separated
Cell Division binary mitosis and meiosis
Ribosomes 70S: 30S + 50S 80S: 40S + 60S
The structure, properties and functions of an
elementary membrane
• “Sandwich” model proposed
by Davson and Danielli (1935)
• Two layers of lipid molecules
between two layers of
protein molecules
• Each lipid molecule has two
ends - a hydrophilic (water-
soluble) and hydrophobic
(water-insoluble)
• The hydrophobic part of the
molecules are directed
towards each other
hydrophilic moieties are
directed toward the protein
molecules
The structure, properties and functions of an
elementary membrane
• “Fluid mosaic” model by Singer and Nicolson (1972)
• Membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, but the proteins do
not form a continuous layer. Instead of it they penetrate
into the lipid bilayer partially or completely.
The structure, properties and functions of
an elementary membrane
• The main components of the membrane are lipids (up
to 80% by weight): phospholipids, lecithin, cholesterol
• Protein molecules are located within the lipid double
layer of molecules that form a "lipid sea"
• Protein molecules, which pass through two layers of
lipid molecules called integral
• Those molecules, the portion of which is in the bilipid
layer called semi-integral
• The surface proteins are also called peripheral proteins
• The third component of the membrane - glycoproteins,
which form the surface receptor apparatus (glycocalyx)
Elementary membrane properties
• 1)Fluidity - Both the lipid and the protein
molecules have full freedom of mobility and are
capable of translateral movements
• 2)Plasticity (quickly recovers from an injury, as well
as stretches and shrinks during cell movement)
• 3)The ability of self-locking (the formation of
vacuoles and phagosomes with amoebae feeding)
• 4)Semi-permeability or selective permeability
(selectively passes certain molecules)
The functions of the membrane
• 1)Structural - all cell organelles except
ribosomes and centrosome include membrane
• 2)Barrier - protects the cell from external
influences and preserves its composition
• 3)Metabolic - many biochemical reactions take
place on the membranes
• 4)Receptor – receiving and transmitting the
signals, recognizing the molecules
The flows of molecules in a cell
Includes three stages:
1) Acquisition of the substances inside the cell
(membrane transport)
2) Transformation and distribution of the
substances within the cell
3) Excretion of the metabolic end products from
the cell
Mechanisms of membrane transport
• Passive transport occurs along the
concentration gradient without the usage of
energy. Water and small molecules can enter
the cell by filtration, diffusion through pores or
directly through lipids (if lipid-soluble)
• Facilitated diffusion of molecules is performed
by protein-transporters named permeases
along the concentration gradient. Aminoacids,
sugars and fatty acids are being transported
inside the cell by this mechanism
Mechanisms of membrane transport
• Active transport requires energy as it directed against the
concentration gradient.This type of transfer requires
enzymes and ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and
specialized ion channels. An example of such a
mechanism is a sodium-potassium pump
• Cytosis: the membrane itself participates in the capture
of particles or molecules and transports them inside the
cell (endocytosis) or removes them from the cell
(exocytosis). Cytosis is characterized by reversible
changes in architectonics (shape) of the membrane.
• The transfer of solid particles or macromolecules called
phagocytosis, while the transfer of liquid droplets called
pinocytosis
The flows of molecules: inside the cell
• Molecules that crossed the
membrane, are distributed
around the cell
• “Plastic“ or biosynthetic
metabolism, or assimilation,
occurs in the anabolic system of
a cell (anabolism). This system
includes the following
organelles:
1)ribosomes
2)the endoplasmic reticulum
(EPR)
3)the Golgi complex (apparatus,
body)
The flows of molecules: inside the cell
• Organelles - differentiated portions of cytoplasm that have a
permanent structure and performing certain functions
• Ribosomes - spherical particles (diameter 15-35 nm),
consisting of large and small subunits:
70S (30S and 50S) in prokaryotes, 80S (40S and 60S) in
eukaryotes – sedimentation constants
Ribosomes
• The large subunit of the ribosome contains
three distinct rRNA molecules (5S, 28S and
5.8S), and 46 proteins
• Small subunit contains 18S rRNA and 33
proteins
• Ribosome assembly occurs in the region of the
nuclear membrane pore
Ribosomes
• Information about the structure of rRNA and ribosome
proteins is located in the nucleolar organizing regions or
nucleoli that are formed around the chromosomal regions
that contain the 5.8S, 18S, and 28S rRNA genes
• The 5.8S, 18S, and 28S rRNAs are transcribed as a single unit
within the nucleolus by RNA polymerase I, yielding a 45S
ribosomal precursor RNA
• Transcription of the 5S rRNA, which is also found in the 60S
ribosomal subunit, takes place outside of the nucleolus and
is catalyzed by RNA polymerase III.
Ribosomes and EPR
• Ribosomes are directly
involved in the assembly of
protein molecules
• Free (cytosol) ribosomes
synthesize proteins for the
cell itself, the EPR-attached –
for the exporting outside the
cell
• Endoplasmic reticulum (EPR)
– the system of channels
located throughout the cell
and connected with the
perinuclear space
The EPR
• The walls of the EPR- elementary membrane that
is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane
• EPR functions as a compartmentalization
apparatus of the cell cytoplasm – it splits it into
segments in which various biochemical reactions
take place
• Granular (rough)EPR (membranes have
ribosomes attached) is involved in proteins
biosynthesis, which are to be transported to the
Golgi apparatus
Smooth EPR
• The membranes of smooth EPR are the sites for
carbohydrates (glycogen) and lipids
(cholesterol) biosynthesis
• Smooth EPR also participates in the synthesis of
steroid hormones and the excretion of chlorine
ions (epithelial cells of the gastric glands) and in
the removal of toxic substances by the liver cells
Golgi apparatus
• Golgi complex consists of membranes forming
various shapes of cisternae, tubes, vesicles
• Key elements of the complex – dictyosomes: the
stacks of 10-15 elementary membranes which
have extensions at the ends
• These extensions form vesicles that are
separated and converted into the lysosome and
vacuoles
• Some of these vesicles transport proteins and
catabolic products outside the cell
Golgi apparatus
Functions:
1) sorting and packaging into the vesicles the products of EPR
synthesis
2) synthesis of complex compounds (lipoproteins, glycoproteins)
3) assembly of elementary membranes
4) the formation of lysosomes, vacuoles and glyoxysomes
5) secretion of the cell products
The EPR and Golgi apparatus
• Golgi complex is a transitional
organelle between the EPR and
plasma membrane
• Golgi complex is closely associated
with the SER and in some cells ER
and GA are physically connected
• Microvesicles that transport the
substances synthesized in the RER to
the GA are being continuously
formed at the edges of SER
• The microvesicles fuse with the area
of GA closest to the SER (the cis-face
or outer edge or forming face of GA)
forming new cisternae
The EPR and Golgi apparatus
• The farthest cisterna of the GA
stack (from the SER) is called
the trans-face or inner edge or
maturing face of the stack
• Its membrane resembles the
plasma membrane
• The edges of the trans-face
cisternae are dilated
• The vesicles called condensing
vesicles or secretory granules
are budded off from these
dilations
From GA to plasma membrane
• The secretory
granules move to
the cell
membrane, fuse
with it and release
their contents to
outside
• Newly synthesized
proteins reach the
GA in 10-20 min
from the site of
their synthesis in
RER, then to enter
the condensing
vesicles in 40 min
and to leave the
cell in about 2 h
The flows of molecules: energy metabolism
• Energy metabolism, or
dissimilation, takes place in the
catabolic system of cells: mitochondria,
lysosomes, and microbodies:
peroxisomes and glyoxysomes
• Animal cells contain lysosomes:
function as recycling centers
• Contain about 40 enzymes for
hydrolyzing proteins, NA, lipids,
carbohydrates
• After the hydrolysis molecules (amino
acids, nucleotides, sugars) leave the
lysosome via transport proteins in its
membrane
• In the cytosol, they can be used
as sources of energy or building blocks
for new molecules
Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are 0.2-0.4
microns in diameter,
covered with
membrane
• Primary lysosomes are
formed in the Golgi
complex and filled with
digestive enzymes from
ER
• Cleavage of substances
occurs in secondary
lysosomes, formed by
fusion of primary
lysosomes and
phagosomes
Lysosomes
• Residual bodies – are the
digestive vacuoles left with
undigestible food
• RB fuse with the cell
membrane and discharge
their contents to the outside
by exocytosis
• In vertebrates, the RB may
accumulate in the cytoplasm
and called lipofuscin granules
• Their number increases with
the age of the cell -
represented in the nerve cells
(long life span)
• One of the causes of ageing
process (?)
Lysosomes
• Autophagic vesicles are
lysosomes digesting cell
organelles (mitochondria,
ribosomes)
• This phenomenon is
called autophagy
• Due to injury, poisoning,
old age or oxygen
deficiency, lysosomes,
rupture releasing their
enzymes into the cell
• As the result, the cell
digests itself. This is called
autolysis or self-
destruction.
Peroxisomes
• Peroxisomes are membrane
vesicles (0.3-1.2 µm diameter)
formed in the EPR
• Called the “centers for reduction–
oxidation (redox) reactions”
• Peroxisome contain enzymes
oxidases - oxidize aminoacids to
produce hydrogen peroxide -
H2O2
• Another peroxisome enzyme,
catalase, uses hydrogen peroxide
to detoxify harmful substances
(ethanol), especially in the liver
and kidneys
Peroxisomes
• In plants and filamentous fungi,
specialized peroxisomes are called
glyoxysomes where fatty acids are
oxidized to acetyl-CoA by oxidation
enzymes
• Glyoxysomes also contain the enzymes
of the glyoxylate cycle – a variant of the
citric acid cycle to convert stored lipids
(triglycerates) to organic acids which then
to carbohydrates (gluconeogenesis)
needed for growth and germination
• Glyoxylate is one of the intermediate
products of the cycle
• Glyoxysomes occur only near
mitochondria as they use some
mitochondrial enzymes
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria (“mito” – thread;
“chondrion” – granule) appear
under the light microscope as
rods, strands, pellets, 0.5-7 um
• The number per cell depends
on the type and functional
state of the cell (0 in
erythrocytes, 50-2000)
• The wall has an outer and inner
membranes, gap filled with an
outer matrix
• Outgrowths of the inner
membrane form cristae,
between is an inner matrix
Mitochondria
• Functions: ATP biosynthesis via further catabolism of glycolysis product acetyl-CoA (the
conversion of the energy of organic compounds into the energy of phosphate bonds),
synthesis of proteins and steroid hormones, Ca2+ storage
• Mitochondria have three enzymatic systems:
1) the Krebs (citric acid) cycle (inner matrix)
2) cell respiration enzymes (inner membrane and outer matrix-intermembrane space)
3) oxidative phosphorylation enzymes (cristae)
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria have many copies of a small,
circular independent chromosome
• Contains only around 37 genes (other info –
nuclear DNA) 16kBp
• Genes include RNAs for mitochondrial
ribosomes and some enzymes
• The ribosomes are smaller (55S = 39S+28S
and produce some of the mitochondrial
proteins
• Most of the proteins found in mitochondria are
produced by free cytosol ribosomes and
imported into the organelle
• The endosymbiotic hypothesis: mitochondria
originated from an ingested prokaryotic cell –
close to Alphaproteobacteria – approx 2 bill.
years ago
• Divide by binnary fission, similarly to bacteria,
in the response to ATP need
Catabolism
• Through catabolism of sugars, fats,
and proteins, a two-carbon organic
product acetate in the form of
acetyl-CoA is produced which
enters the citric acid (or TCA) cycle
• Two carbon atoms are oxidized to
CO2, the energy from these
reactions being transferred to
other metabolic processes by GTP
(or ATP), and as electrons in NADH
and FADH2. The NADH generated
in the TCA cycle may later donate
its electrons [oxidative
phosphorylation] to drive ATP
synthesis
Mitochondrial diseases
• Additional functions of mitochondria: production of reactive oxygen
species (ROS), apoptosis (programmed cell death), metabolism
regulation, receiving hormonal signals, cell proliferation regulation
• Mitochondrial diseases include the disorders caused by dysfunctional
mitochondria, often due to mutation in mitoDNA of cell DNA
• Are believed to be caused either by oxydative damage due to the ROS or
by deficiency in ATP production
• Examples include neuro- and myopathic diseases, often multi-organ ones
• Mitochondrial diseases are inheritable, either maternally or from either
parents
• During fertilization, the mitochondria and the mitoDNA usually originate
from the egg only (the paternal mitochondria enter the egg, but do not
survive
• Mitochondria are inherited only from mothers – “maternal inheritance”
• The DNA sequence can be used in population genetics studies
6. The flows of energy in a cell
Energy exchange has
three stages:
I - preparatory
II - anoxic (anaerobic)
III - oxygen (aerobic)
The primary source of
energy on the planet
Is the Sun.
Energy exchange stages
• The preparatory stage takes place in the digestive system of
the organisms and in the phagosomes of cells, where the
complex organic compounds decompose to simple ones:
polysaccharides to monosaccharides, proteins to amino
acids, fats to glycerol and fatty acids. The energy released in
this case is dissipated as heat.
• The anaerobic stage takes place in the cytoplasm of cells
using a number of enzymatic reactions. In a process of
GLYCOLYSIS glucose is broken into 2 molecules of pyruvic
acid, and 2 molecules of ATP and 2 of NADH are formed.
Pyruvic acid can enter the mitochondria (for further
transformations). When the muscles work, lactic acid is
formed from pyruvate.
Energy exchange stages
• The aerobic stage of the energy metabolism
takes place in the mitochondria. Pyruvic acid in
combination with coenzyme A (CoA) enters the
inner matrix of the mitochondria thru porins.
• Hydrogen atoms are then split off the activated
form of acetic acid (Acetyl CoA). The formed
CO2 is released from mitochondria, and
protons and electrons (from hydrogen atoms)
pass to the system of tissue respiration
enzymes.
Energy exchange stages
• Protons accumulate on the outer surface of the inner
membrane, and electrons on the inner. When the critical
potential is reached, the protons pass through the
channels in the ATP-somes (ATP-synthase).
• The electrons give energy to attach phosphoric acid
residues to ADP to form ATP and to combine with protons
to formed hydrogen, which produces water molecules
with oxygen.
• As the result of the transformation of a glucose molecule,
36 molecules of ATP (+ 2 molecules of the anaerobic
stage) - a total of 38 ATP molecules are formed.
Energy exchange
• Glycocalyx is a receptor apparatus of an animal cell
membrane.
• Glycolysis - the process of oxygen-free splitting of
glucose.
• Glyoxisomes are organoids in which the conversion
of fats into carbohydrates occurs.
• The concentration gradient is the difference in the
concentration of substances.
• Mesosomes - invaginations of the plasmolemma of
prokaryotic cells, which serve as membrane
organoids.
• Nucleoid is the genetic apparatus of prokaryotes.
• Peroxisomes are organoids in which oxidation of amino
acids occurs with the formation of hydrogen peroxide.
• Plasmalemma is a membrane that forms a part of the
cell envelope.
• Enzymes of oxidative phosphorylation are enzymes of
mitochondria localized in mushroom-like structures
called “ATP-somes”
• Enzymes of tissue (cell) respiration are enzymes of
mitochondria, localized on cristae.
• Enzymes of the Krebs cycle are enzymes of
mitochondria localized in the matrix.
