Instrumentation and Measurements
BE-56 A&B
Fall 2020
Instructor: Lt Dr. Col Humayun Zubair Khan
Week-2
Basics of Measurement
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Instrumentation by Uday A. Bakhsi
Introduction
Introduction
Standard of Units
Functional Elements of an Instruments
Performance Characteristics
Static Characteristics
Dynamic Characteristics
Instrument Classification
Methods of Measurement
Types of Errors
Loading Effects
Functional Elements of an Instrument
Functional elements of an instruments are divide into
three parts
Primary sensing element
Data conditioning element
Data presentation element
Primary sensing element (PSE)
An element of an instrument which makes,
first, the contact with quantity to be
measured is called primary sensing element
(PSE)
The first detection of measurand is done by
PSE
Generally transducers follows PSE, which
converts measurand into corresponding
electrical signals.
Variable conversion element
When output from PSE is not suitable for
actual measurement system, variable
conversion element is required e.g. Analog to
Digital convertors
The original information about measurand
should be retained as it is while performing
conversion
Some instruments need variable conversion
element and some do not
Variable manipulation element
Manipulation involves change in the numerical
value of the signal
Low Signal – Amplifiers
High Signal - Attenuators
Noise – Clipper/ clamping
Variable conversion + variable manipulation +
signal conditioning = Data Conditioning or
Signal Conditioning element
Data transmission element
When elements of system are physically
separated, it is necessary to transmit the data
from one stage to other. This is done through
data transmission element
Signal conditioning + Data transmission =
Intermediate stage of an instrument
Data presentation element
Transmitted data may be used by the system for
monitoring, controlling or analysis purpose
The observer should get to data in proper form. This
is done by data presentation element
Monitoring: visual display devices
Record & Analysis: magnetic tapes, recorders, high speed
cameras
Control & Analysis: microprocessors, computers,
microcontrollers
This stage is known as terminating stage
Introduction
Introduction
Standard of Units
Functional Elements of an Instruments
Performance Characteristics
Static Characteristics
Dynamic Characteristics
Instrument Classification
Methods of Measurement
Types of Errors
Loading Effects
Performance Characteristics
Selecting a proper instruments for a
particular measurand needs knowledge of
the performance characteristics of an
instrument
Two categories
Static Characteristics
Dynamic Characteristics
Introduction
Introduction
Standard of Units
Functional Elements of an Instruments
Performance Characteristics
Static Characteristics
Dynamic Characteristics
Instrument Classification
Methods of Measurement
Types of Errors
Loading Effects
Static Characteristics
Set of criteria defined for the instruments,
which are used to measure the quantities
which are slowly varying with time or mostly
constant, is called static characteristics
It includes accuracy, precision, error,
sensitivity, threshold, resolution, linearity,
zero drift, stabilityetc.
Static Characteristics: Accuracy
It is the degree of closeness with which the
instrument reading approaches the true value
of the measurand
It indicates true value of the measurand
Types
Percentage of Full Scale Reading
Percentage of True Value
Percentage of Scale Span
Static Characteristics: Precision
It denotes the closeness with which
individuals measurements are departed or
distributed about average of measured
values
It is the measure of consistency or
repeatability of measurements
Difference b/w accuracy and precision?
Static Characteristics: Precision
Example 1.1:
Static Characteristics: Precision
Static Characteristics: Error
It is the algebraic difference between the
indicated value and the true value of the
measurand
Types
Absolute Error
Relative Error
Percentage Relative Error
Error in percentage of full scale reading
Static Characteristics: Error
Absolute Error
𝒆= 𝑨 𝒕 − 𝑨 𝒎
Static Characteristics: Error
Relative Error
Percentage relative error
Static Characteristics: Error
Relative Percentage Error Accuracy
Static Characteristics: Error
Percentage of full scale deflection
Static Characteristics: Error
Solution
Absolute error =150-149 = 1
Percentage error = 1/150*100= 0.667%
Relative accuracy= 1-[Error/True value]
= 1-[1/150] = .9933
Percentage accuracy= Relative accuracy*100
= 99.33%
Error %full scale = [Error/Full scale reading]*100
= [1\200]*100=0.5%
Static Characteristics: Error
Example: An ammeter reads 8.3 A and the
true value of the current is 8.5 A. Determine
(i) absolute error (ii) relative error (iii) relative
percentage error?
Solution
Absolute error=8.5-8.3=0.2
Relative error=0.2/8.5= 0.0235/1
Relative %error= 0.0235*100=2.35%
Static Characteristics: Sensitivity
It is the ratio of the change in the output of
the instrument to a change in the value of
measurand
It denotes the smallest change in the
measurand value to which the instrument
responds
Static Characteristics: Sensitivity
Inverse Sensitivity = Deflection Factor
Units: mm/μA, mm/Ω, counts/volt
Static Characteristics: Sensitivity
Example: A particular ammeter require a change
of 2 A in its coil to a change in deflection of the
pointer by 5mm. (i)Determine its sensitivity and
(ii) deflection factor?
Solution
Sensitivity=5mm/2A = 2.5 mm/A
Deflection factor=1/2.5mm/A
= 0.4 A/mm
Static Characteristics: Resolution
The smallest measurable input change is
called resolution
Static Characteristics: Zero Drift
It is defined as the deviation in the instrument
output with time when measurand is
constant
Factors of drift
Electrical field, Magnetic field, temperature
changes, changes in atomic structure, wear &
tear, corrosion etc.
Stability is to retain instrument performance
throughout its specified operating life
Static Characteristics: Dead Space
For a certain range of input values, there is no
change of output. This range is called dead
space
Introduction
Introduction
Standard of Units
Functional Elements of an Instruments
Performance Characteristics
Static Characteristics
Dynamic Characteristics
Instrument Classification
Methods of Measurement
Types of Errors
Loading Effects
Dynamic Characteristics
When instrument is subjected to rapidly varying
inputs, then relation between input and output
become different. The behaviour of system
under such condition is called dynamic response
of system
Energy storage elements causes dynamic
behaviour
Transient & Steady state response
Dynamic behaviour of instrument is determined
by applying some known and predetermined
variations of input to the sensing element
Types of inputs
Step Input: It represents a sudden, instantaneous
change in the input
Ramp Input: It represents a linear change in input
Types of inputs
Parabolic Input: It represents an input signal which is proportional to the square of
time and represents acceleration
Impulse Input: It exists only at t=0 and has zero value at any other time
Sinusoidal Input: This represents an input which changes in accordance of the
sinusoidal function of constant amplitude
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the
true value of a measurand changing with time
and the value indicating by the instrument.
Fidelity: It is defined as degree to which an
instrument indicates change in the measurand
without dynamic error
