Political Participation

• Political Change and Revolution

• Elections
• Electoral System
• Public Opinion
• Propaganda
• Political Parties
• Pressure Group and Lobbies
1. Political Change and
Revolution
2. Elections
 Elections and Electoral System: An Overview

Readings for the Chapter

•

•Heywood, Andrew. 2002. ‘Representation, Elections and Voting’. In Politics. New

York, NY: Palgrave.
• Evans, Jocelyn A. J. 2009. ‘Electoral Systems’. In Bara, J. and Pennington, M. (eds.),
Comparative Politics. New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
• Moser, R. G. and Ethans, S. 2004. ‘Mixed Electoral Systems and Electoral System
Effects: Controlled Comparison and Cross–national Analysis’. Electoral Studies 23.
 Election

Definition: Mechanism by which modern representative system of governments choose

individuals or group of individuals for legislature or council (sometimes even for the
executive and judiciary posts)
Intrinsic relation between election, representation and democracy
Notion of Representation
• Theories of representation: Trusteeship model, delegate model, mandate model and
resemblance model
• Theories of voting: Party identification model, sociological model, rational choice
model and dominant ideology model
Representative Politics (Evans Jocelyn)
• Microcosm model
• Principal–agent model
Functions of Election (Harrop and Miller)
The bottom-up function:
• Political recruitment
• Representation
• Making the government
• Influencing policy and so on
The top-down function:
• In providing a means through which government and political elites can control and
mould the electorate to make it conducive to its governance, generating favourable
public opinion and so on
 Electoral System

• Definition: Electoral system is the rules that decide how votes are cast,
counted and translated into seats in legislature, and these system vary
widely around the world. They govern the conduct of elections. (O’Neil,
Patrick H., 2004)
• Kinds of electoral system
• Plurality majoritarian system: FPTP
• PR
• Mixed representation
 Single-Member Plurality System (SMD):
First Pass the Post
• Is a system in which the candidate(s) with the most votes are declared
elected; there is no requirement that the winner gains an absolute
majority of votes.
• The term ‘first pass the post’ (FPTP) is coined as an analogy to horse
racing, where the winner of the race is the first passing a particular
point (the post).
• Electoral constituencies are structured as single-member districts
usually of equal size.
• Single-member district plurality or FPTP is also known as the ‘winner
takes it all’.
• Once a candidate gets the majority of the votes, after that all other
candidates lose automatically.
• Used mostly in English-speaking world: United Kingdom, United States
of America, Canada, India, Nigeria and so on.
 Advantages of FPTP

• The principle of one person, one vote is maintained.

• Strong link between the constituency and the representative thus
ensuring that the mandate is carried out effectively.
• Clear choice is offered to the electorate.
• FPTP achieves moderation by minimizing a situation of election of a
candidate having extreme views.
• Two-party systems are thought to produce stable, strong and effective
government. The government is formed by a single party that is in
majority and administration becomes smooth and efficient.
 Disadvantages of FPTP

• FPTP results in tactical voting or compromised voting.

For example if there are five candidates A, B, C, D, E. If A and C are
expected to win, there may be a situation that a voter prefers D to A, B,
C and E, still the voter will prefer to vote either A or C instead of D as
he/she will not like to waste his/her vote and have no impact on the
final verdict.
(Example of US presidential election of 2002 in which Al Gore lost very
closely to G. W. Bush.)
• Wastage of votes (cast for the losing candidate and those cast for
winning ones over the plurality mark).
• Gerrymandering
• Exclusionary, not truly representative.
 Gerrymandering

Dots represent voters; lines represent electoral districts. The diagram to

the left represents a fair (ungerrymandered) election. The other diagram
shows how gerrymandering can tilt the odds to favour one side.
 Effect on Voting and Election: Duverger’s Law

Direct correlation between the electoral

system and the party system:
• Plurality rule election system/FPTP tends to produce two-party
systems.
• PR tends to favour multiparty system.
• The double ballot majoritarian system promotes multiple parties
aligned into two camps.
Exceptions: India, Canada
 Proportional Representation (PR)

• Number of seats won by the party/group of individuals will be

proportionate to the votes they received. For example in a pure
proportional system, if a party secures 35 per cent of the votes, it will
gain 35 per cent of the seats.
• Used to elect an assembly or council.
• Reasonable alternative to single-member plurality system like FPTP.
• PR systems provide opportunities and conditions to marginal parties to
be part of the governance process.
• More inclusive, representative and democratic.
• Ongoing debate in most of the countries following the majoritarian
system to move towards greater proportionality. Examples: Canadian
provinces such as British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec.
 Different Methods of PR System:
Party-list Proportional System
• Parties compile the list of candidates to offer before the electorate.
• Political parties are emphasized and not individual candidates.
• Two types: Open list (OL) system and closed list (CL) system.
• In OL system, the voters may indicate their order of preference within
the list. Example: Older democracies such as Finland, Sweden and
Netherlands.
• In a CL system, they can vote for a complete list, it is the party that
reserves the right to determine the order of the candidates. Example:
Newer democracies like Russia and South Africa.
• In PR the concept of district magnitude (DM) is important.
• Larger DM ensures greater proportionality and diversity.
 Single Transferrable Vote System (STV)

• Used in multi-member constituency and engages ranked or preferential

voting
• Also called Hare-Clark system
• Employs the threshold of quotas as the criteria of election of the
candidate called Droop formula:
Total numbers of votes cast
Quota  1
Number of seats to be filled  1

For example, if there 20,000 votes cast for 4 seats in a constituency, then
the quota will be 20000/(4+1)+1=4001.
• Votes are counted from the first preferences
• If not all seats are filled, the candidate at the bottom are eliminated
and that candidate’s votes are redistributed to rest according to the
second preferences and so on
• Used in Republic of Ireland, Scotland, India (Upper House), Australia,
New Zealand and Malta
 Advantages of STV
• High proportional outcomes are ensured.
• It enables the people to exclusively cast their vote in favour of the
candidate they like the most.
• It totally checks the wastage of the votes.
• The reputation and efforts of candidate matters, bringing competition
within the party and thus improving the overall quality of the
representatives.
• Multi-member constituency ensures that public has lot of options for
approaching any member they feel comfortable with.
Disadvantages of STV:
• The intra-party rivalry may be detrimental to the overall orientation
and productivity of the party.
• This system tries to encompass all political party players mostly
resulting in coalitions that may not be effective or may not last long.
Mixed representation: Additional Member System
(AMS)
• AMS combines the technique of plurality system as well as PR system.
• Some proportion is filled by FPTP and some by the party-list PR system.
• Voters have two votes, one for the political party and other for the
candidate.
• Four characteristics distinguish mixed system: Linkage/compensatory
seats, the ratio of seats in each tier, the electoral formula, the district
magnitude and legal threshold of the PR tier.
• Followed in Germany, Italy, Scotland and Wales.
Advantages of AMS

• AMS offers a beautiful combination of both electoral systems—the

plurality majoritarian system and PR system, thereby balancing each
other.
• The mechanical effect of FPTP is counterchecked by the inclusive and
encompassing orientation of PR system.
Disadvantages
• Presence of single-member plurality system hinders the objective of
achieving proportionality.
• Parties dominate the scene and determine which candidates will get a
place in the party list.
 Dilemma

• We must remember Kenneth Arrow’s impossibility Theorem that

proves that no method can simultaneously obtain all properties
desirable in a voting system.
 Model Questions

• What is the significance of election in political process? Critically

analyse the different types of electoral system like FPTP, Proportional
Representation and Mixed Representation.
• Do you agree with Duverger’s correlation between the electoral system
and political parties in a country? Elaborate upon the relative
advantages and disadvantages of the majoritarian electoral system like
FPTP and Proportional systems.
• Adult and Restricted Franchise
• Conditions for candidates in an Islamic State Article 62,63
3. Electoral System
 4. Public Opinion

Are desires of the people which they want to adopt in practical life.
Growth of Public opinion and Modern State
• Modern state promotes Public opinion
The Measurement of Public Opinion
• Method of public polls
• Questionnaire of magazines and newspapers
• Interviews for magazines and newspapers
• Telephonic Survey
• Newspaper Forum
• Electronic media
Sources for the Formulation of Public
Opinion
• Public Leaders
• Intellectuals
• Print Media
• Political Parties
• Interest Groups
• Educational Institutions
• Experiments and Observations
• Electronic Media
• Propaganda
• Environment
• Legislative Assembly
• Non-Governmental Organization
Conditions for Sound Public Opinion
• Education
• Free Press
• Free Discussions
• Social Harmony
• Economic Security
5. Propaganda
What is Propaganda
• Propaganda: Media that tries to get the viewer to think a
certain way or believe a certain thing. Often uses incorrect
or misleading information to affect opinion.
• Propaganda is a long running tool that goes back well before
the modern day.
 Propaganda Fresh
• World War 2 era Mexican
Propaganda depicting the national
eagle tearing up the Nazi flag to
declare poor relations with the Nazi
party.
Propaganda or Advertisement?

Propaganda Advertisement
• Often political • Often commercial
• Rarely regulated • Typically regulated
• Relies on misinformation • Has to at least resemble the
• Aimed at mindsets truth
• Aimed at products
World War 1 and Propaganda
• World War 1 saw an influx of propaganda as the European
powers geared up for war.
• The goal of Propaganda: Convince your citizens that fighting
your enemy is a good thing.
• By presenting the enemy in a negative light and your
country in a good light it becomes okay for you to wage war
against your enemy.
Techniques of Propaganda
• Bandwagon
• “Everyone’s doing it, so it must be a good idea!”
• Relies on a desire to be accepted by the group to influence
opinion.
• Used heavily to get citizens invested in the start of a war.
Techniques of Propaganda
• Bandwagon
Techniques of Propaganda
• Testimonial:
• “I’m Barack Obama, and I approved this message.”
• Uses a famous person to make an argument, hoping that
person’s fame will influence viewers.
• Used to convince people that their role models support the
idea behind the propaganda.
Techniques of Propaganda
• Glittering Generalities:
• “Join the navy and see the world!”
• Paints a simplistic picture by highlighting positives and
ignoring negatives.
• Used to counter concerns the viewers have over the topic, for
example by presenting a World War 1 trench as a nice enough
place to be instead of a deathtrap.
Techniques of Propaganda
• Glittering Generalities
Techniques of Propaganda
• Name Calling:
• “The German people are bad people at the core.”
• Uses negativity to make something look bad and something
else look good by comparison.
• World War 1 Name Calling used national and ethnic
stereotypes to paint entire groups as less than human.
Techniques of Propaganda
• Name Calling
Techniques of Propaganda
• Plain Folks:
• “After taking DietAway Diet Pills, I lost 30lbs in 2 weeks, and
so can you!”
• Related to testimonial; uses “average people” to show viewers
that people similar to them agree with the propaganda.
• Used in World War 1 to elevate people who volunteered for
the war effort as doing their part.
Techniques of Propaganda
• Plain Folks
Techniques of Propaganda
• Card Stacking:
• “Dominoes Pizza has the best cheese on any pizza you can
buy. Period.”
• Shaping information to make a product or idea look
better than it is.
• Late in World War 1 this was used to counter despair over the
defeats countries were having.
6. Political Parties
Kinds of Political Parties
• Conservative Political Parties
• Reactionary Political Parties
• Liberal or Progressive Political Parties
• Revolutionary or Radical Political Parties
• Moderate Political Parties
Duties of Political Parties
• Formulation of Public Opinion
• Nomination of candidates
• Political Training
• Awakening of political awareness
• Making of government
• Legislation
• Criticism on Govt
• Accountability of the candidates
7. Pressure Group and
Lobbies
Pressure Group and Lobbies
• This is a group having specific objectives for specific interests and
doing political attempts for the achievement of interests.
• This group influences legislative and executive also.
Kinds of Interest Groups
• Associational Groups
• Non-Associational Groups
• Institutional Groups
• Terrorist Groups
• Promotional Groups
• Traditional Groups
• Communist Groups
Role of Pressure Groups in Modern State
• Well organized in Europe
• Formulation of policies

• Violence and protest

• Unfair demands
Methods of Political Actions of Interest
Groups
• Discipline
• Increase in membership
• Lobbying
• Formulation of public opinion
• Importance of economy
Local Self Government
• https://www.slideshare.net/39400/local-government-of-pakistan