CRITICAL THINKING

Course content:-
1. INTRODUCING PHILOSOPHY
I. Meaning and Nature of Philosophy
II. Basic Features of Philosophy
III. Metaphysics and Epistemology
IV. Axiology and Logic
V. Importance of Learning Philosophy
2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF LOGIC
VI. Arguments, Premises and Conclusions
VII. Techniques of Recognizing Arguments
VIII. Types of Arguments: Deduction and Induction
IX. Evaluating Arguments
3. LOGIC AND LANGUAGE
X. Philosophy of Language: An overview
XI. Logic and Meaning
XII. Meaning, Types, and Purposes of Definitions
XIII. Techniques of Definition
XIV. Criteria for Lexical Definitions

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 Cont…
4. BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRITICAL THINKING
I. Meaning of Critical Thinking
II. Standards of Critical Thinking
III. Codes of Intellectual Conduct for Effective Discussion
IV. Characteristics of Critical Thinking
V. Barriers to Critical Thinking
VI. Benefits of Critical Thinking
5. INFORMAL FALLACIES
VII. Fallacy in General
VIII. Fallacies of Relevance
IX. Fallacies of Weak Induction
X. Fallacies of Presumption
XI. Fallacies of Ambiguity and Grammatical Analogy
6. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
XII. General Introduction
XIII. Attributes of Categorical Propositions: Quality, Quantity, and Distribution
XIV. Venn Diagrams and the Modern Square of Opposition
XV. Evaluating Immediate Inferences: Using Venn Diagrams and Square of
Oppositions

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 COURSE INTRODUCTION
 is a high-level thought course in the discipline
 takes argumentation and reasoning as its basic objects of

investigation and attempts to introduce the fundamental

concepts of logic and methods of logical argumentation and
reasoning and critical thinking
 evaluation of the methods by which we form beliefs, weigh

evidence, assess hypotheses and arguments, and analyze

reasoning.
 Logic is concerned with the study of arguments
 Critical thinking is an exercise, a habit, a manner of

perception and reasoning that has principles of logic as its

fulcrum, and dynamically involves various reasoning skills
that ought to be human approach to issues and events of life.
 correct thinking in the pursuit of relevant and reliable

knowledge about the world

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 Cont…
 critical thinking is the reasonable, reflective, responsible, and skillful thinking
that focuses on deciding what to believe or do.
 To think critically is to examine ideas, evaluate them against what you already

know and make decisions about their merit.

 A person who thinks critically can
o ask appropriate questions,
o gather relevant information,
o efficiently and creatively sort through this information,
o reason logically from this information, and
o come to reliable and trustworthy conclusions about the world that enable one

to live and act successfully in it

 weigh up all sides of an argument and evaluate its validity, strengths and

weaknesses.
 All education consists of transmitting (1)the subject matter or discipline

content of the course ("what to think"), and (2) the correct way to understand
and evaluate this subject matter ("how to think").
 to teach students essential skills of analyzing, evaluating, and constructing

arguments, and to sharpen their ability to execute the skills in thinking and
writing, and thus better prepare them to succeed in the world
 rationally evaluate the credibility of claims and arguments you encounter

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCING PHILOSOPHY
 Logic is a branch of philosophy that deals with the

study of arguments and the principles and

methods of right reasoning.
 Philosophy is the study of general and

fundamental problems concerning matters such as

existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice,
validity, mind, and language.
 It is a rational and critical enterprise that tries to

answer fundamental questions through an

intensive application of reason-an application that
draws on analysis, comparison, and evaluation.

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1. Meaning and Nature of Philosophy
 Because of its universal nature, it is difficult to define
philosophy in terms of a specific subject matter
 etymologically as ‗love of wisdom as a pursuit of

wisdom, philosophy refers to the development of

critical habits, the continuous search for truth, and the
questioning of the apparent.
 giving a clear-cut definition of philosophy is difficult.

i.e in terms of a subject matter

 Philosophy deals primarily with issues

 Thinking that philosophy is incomprehensible

 To understand philosophy, it is better to read different

thoughts of philosophers, consciously see its salient

features by yourself, participate in it, and do it.

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 Cont…
 It is unanimously agreed that the best way to learn and
understand philosophy is to philosophize; i.e., to be confronted
with philosophical questions, to use philosophical language, to
become acquainted with differing philosophical positions and
maneuvers
 Etymologically, the word ― philosophy‖ comes from two Greek

words: ―philo‖ and ―sophia‖, which mean ―love‖ and ―wisdom

 Anyone who raises questions, such as Does God exists? What is

reality? What is the ultimate source of Being? What is knowledge?

What does it mean to know?
 not all wisdoms are philosophy

 Dear learners, what do you think is the wisdom that philosophers

seek?
 philosophers seek is not the wisdom of the expertise or technical

skills of professionals.
 wisdom consists of a critical habit and eternal vigilance about all

things and a reverence for truth, whatever its form, and wherever
its place. The questioning of the apparent
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Dear learners, what do you think does it mean to question the apparent?
Does it mean to deny the fact or the practical reality?
 To interrogate the obvious means to deal creatively with the
phenomenal world, to go beyond the common
understanding, and to speculate about things that other
people accept with no doubt.
 Raising the right question is an art that includes the ability to

foresee what is not readily obvious and to imagine different

possibilities and alternatives of approaching the apparent.
 When we ultimately wonder about the existing world, and

thus raise different questions about its order, each question

moves us from the phenomenal facts to a profound
speculation.
 Vincent Barry stated, is “an active imaginative process of

formulating proper questions and resolving them by

rigorous, persistent analysis”.

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
Cont…
Accordingly, we can say that Philosophy has a constructive side, for it
attempts to formulate rationally defensible answers to certain
fundamental questions concerning the nature of reality, the nature of
value, and the nature of knowledge and truth.
 its critical side is manifested when it deals with giving a rational

critic, analysis, clarification, and evaluation of answers given to basic

metaphysical, epistemological, and axiological questions.
 philosophy is an activity

 It is not something that can be easily mastered or learned in schools.

 A philosopher is a great philosopher, not because he mastered

philosophy, but because he did it.

 It is not his theory, but his extraordinary ability to critically think, to

conceptualize, to analyze, to compare, to evaluate, and to

understand- i.e., to philosophize- that makes him so.
 the product of philosophizing is philosophy as a product.

 However, what makes someone a great philosopher is not the

produced philosophy, but his/her outstanding ability to

philosophize.

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 2. Basic Features of Philosophy
 the general features of philosophy can be summarized
as follows
1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and
the universe, which are often held uncritically ( an
informal personal attitude to whatever topic is being
discussed).
2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing
our most deeply held conceptions and beliefs.
(doing‖ philosophy)
 Philosophers are reflective and critical. They take a

second look at the material presented by common

sense.
 They attempt to think through a variety of life‘s

problems and to face all the facts involved impartially.

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 Cont…
 Critical evaluations often differ. Philosophers, theologians,
scientists, and others disagree,
 first because they view things from different points of view

and with different assumptions. Their personal experiences,

cultural backgrounds, and training may vary widely.
 A second reason philosophers disagree is that they live in a

changing universe. People change, society changes, and

nature changes.
 A third reason philosophers disagree is that they deal with

an area of human experience in which the evidence is not

complete.
 Despite these disagreements, however, philosophers

continue to probe, examine, and evaluate the material with

the hope of presenting consistent principles by which we can
live.

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 Cont…
3) Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a
whole.
 Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various

sciences and human experience into some kind of

consistent worldview.
 Philosophers wish to see life, not with the specialized slant

of the scientist or the businessperson or the artist, but with

the overall view of someone cognizant of life as a totality.
 Philosophy‘s task is to give a view of the whole, a life and a

worldview, and to integrate the knowledge of the sciences

with that of other disciplines to achieve a consistent whole.
 Philosophy, according to this view, attempts to bring the

results of human inquiry- religious, historical, and scientific

into some meaningful interpretation that provides
knowledge and insight for our lives.

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 Cont..

4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the

meaning of words and concepts.
 all philosophers have used methods of analysis and have sought to clarify the

meaning of terms and the use of language.

5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for
which philosophers always have sought answers.
 Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human existence.
 Some of the philosophical questions raised in the past have been answered in a

manner satisfactory to the majority of philosophers.

 Many questions, however, have been answered only tentatively, and many

problems remain unsolved.

 What is life and why am I here? Why is there anything at all? What is the place

of life in this great universe? Is the universe friendly or unfriendly? Do things

operate by chance or through sheer mechanism, or is there some plan,
purpose, or intelligence at the heart of things? Is my life controlled by outside
forces, or do I have a determining or even a partial degree of control? Why do
people struggle and strive for their rights, for justice, for better things in the
future? what are the marks of a good society? Often men and women have
been asked to sacrifice their lives, if need be, for certain values and ideals.
 Is it intellectually valid to believe in God? Is there a possibility of a ―life after

death?‖

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3. Core Fields of Philosophy
 Metaphysics and Epistemology
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the ultimate nature of
reality or existence.
 Here are some of the questions that Metaphysics primarily deals with:

 What is reality?

 What is the ultimately real?

  What is the nature of the ultimate reality?

  Is it one thing or is it many different things?

  Can reality be grasped by the senses, or it is transcendent?

  What makes reality different from a mere appearance?

  What is mind, and what is its relation to the body?

  Is there a cause and effect relationship between reality and appearance?

  Does God exist, and if so, can we prove it?

  Are human actions free, or predetermined by a supernatural force?

  What is human being? A thinking mind? A perishable body? Or a combination

of both?
  What is time?

  What is the meaning of life?

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What is real?‘ seem too simple to bother
asking
1. It is obviously flat, solid, and smooth; it has a particular color;
it is composed of an identifiable material, such as wood or
concrete; and it supports your weight.
2. a physicist enters the room and questioned about the reality of
the floor. She will reply that the floor is made of molecules;
that molecules consist of atoms, electrons, protons, and
neutrons; and these, finally, of electric energy alone.
3. A third position is offered by a passing chemist. To him the
floor is a hotbed of hydrocarbons associated in a particular
way and subject to certain kinds of environmental influences,
such as heat, cold, wetness, dryness, and oxidation.
 It is evident that the question of reality is not as simplistic as it

appears.
 Metaphysical questions may be divided into four subsets or

aspects.

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 Cont..
I. Cosmological Aspect: Cosmology consists in the study of theories
about the origin, nature, and development of the universe as an
orderly system.
II. Theological Aspect: Theology is that part of religious theory that
deals with conceptions of and about God. ―Is there a God? If so, is
there one or more than one?
III. Anthropological Aspect: Anthropology deals with the study of
human beings and asks questions like the following: What is the
relation between mind and body? Is mind more fundamental than
body, with body depending on mind, or vice versa? are their
thoughts and actions determined by their environment, inheritance,
or a divine being?
IV. Ontological Aspect: Ontology is the study of the nature of
existence, or what it means for anything to exist. Several questions
are central to ontology: ―Is basic reality found in matter or
physical energy (the world we can sense), or is it found in spirit or
spiritual energy? Is it composed of one element (e.g., matter or
spirit),

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 Epistemology
 Epistemology is the other field of philosophy that studies about
the nature, scope, meaning, and possibility of knowledge.
 It deals with issues of knowledge, opinion, truth, falsity,

reason, experience, and faith. Epistemology is also referred to

as ―theory of knowledge‖.
 It seeks to answer of the basic questions as ―What is true?‖

and ―How do we know?‖ Thus, epistemology covers two areas:

the content of thought and thought itself.
 The following are among the questions/issues with which

Epistemology deals:
o What is knowledge?

o  What does it mean to know?

o  What is the source of knowledge? Experience? Reason? Or both?

o  How can we be sure that what we perceive through our senses

is correct?
o What makes knowledge different from belief or opinion?

o  What is truth, and how can we know a statement is true?

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 Cont…
 Epistemology seeks answers to a number of fundamental
issues. One is whether reality can even be known.
 Skepticism in its narrow sense is the position claiming that

people cannot acquire reliable knowledge and that any search

for truth is in vain.
 That thought was well expressed by Gorgias, the Greek

Sophist who asserted that nothing exists, and that if it did, we

could not know it. A full-blown skepticism would make
intelligent action impossible.
 A term closely related to skepticism is agnosticism.

Agnosticism is a profession of ignorance in reference to the

existence or nonexistence of God.
 Most people claim that reality can be known. However, once

they have taken that position, they must decide through what
sources reality may be known, and must have some concept of
how to judge the validity of their knowledge.

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
Cont..
A second issue foundational to epistemology is whether
all truth is relative, or whether some truths are absolute.
 If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such Truth is

eternally and universally true irrespective of time or place.

 Closely related to the issue of the relativity and

absoluteness of truth are the questions of whether

knowledge is subjective or objective, and whether there is
truth that is independent of human experience.
 A major aspect of epistemology relates to the sources of

human knowledge. If one accepts the fact that there is

truth and even Truth in the universe, how can human
beings comprehend such truths? How do they become
human knowledge? Central to most people‘s answer to
that question is empiricism (knowledge obtained through
the senses).

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 Cont…
 Empirical knowledge appears to be built into the very nature of
human experience.
 Thus, when individuals walk out of doors on a spring day and see

the beauty of the landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the
warm rays ofhe sun, and smell the fragrance of the blossoms,
they ―know‖ that it is spring.
 Sensory knowing for humans is immediate and universal, and in

many ways forms the basis of much of human knowledge.

 The existence of sensory data cannot be denied. Most people

accept it uncritically as representing ―reality.‖

 The danger of naively embracing this approach is that data

obtained from the human senses have been demonstrated to be

both incomplete and undependable. (For example, most people
have been confronted with the contradiction of seeing a stick that
looks bent when partially submerged in water but appears to be
straight when examined in the air.) Fatigue, frustration, and
illness also distort and limit sensory perception. In addition, there
are sound and light waves that are inaudible and invisible to
unaided human perception.
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 Cont…
 Humans have invented scientific instruments to extend the range of
their senses, but it is impossible to ascertain the exact dependability
of these instruments since no one knows the total effect of the
human mind in recording, interpreting, and distorting sensual
perception.
 In general, sensory knowledge is built upon assumptions that must

be accepted by faith in the dependability of human sensory

mechanisms.
 The advantage of empirical knowledge is that many sensory

experiences and experiments are open to both replication and

public examination.
 A second important source of human knowledge is reason. The view

that reasoning, thought, or logic is the central factor in knowledge is

known as rationalism.
 The rationalist, in emphasizing humanity‘s power of thought and the

mind‘s contributions to knowledge, is likely to claim that the senses

alone cannot provide universal, valid judgments that are consistent
with one another.

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 Cont…
 From this perspective, the sensations and experiences humans
obtain through their senses are the raw material of knowledge.
These sensations must be organized by the mind into a
meaningful system before they become knowledge.
 Rationalism in a less extreme form claims that people have the

power to know with certainty various truths about the universe

that the senses alone cannot give.
 A third source of human knowledge is intuition- the direct

apprehension of knowledge that is not derived from conscious

reasoning or immediate sense perception.
 In the literature dealing with intuition, one often finds such

expressions as ―immediate feeling of certainty.‖ Intuition

occurs beneath the threshold of consciousness and is often
experienced as a sudden flash of insight.
 Intuition has been claimed under varying circumstances as a

source of both religious and secular knowledge.

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 Cont…
 A fourth influential source of knowledge throughout the span of
human history has been revelation.
 Revealed knowledge has been of prime importance in the field of

religion. It differs from all other sources of knowledge because it

presupposes a transcendent supernatural reality that breaks into
the natural order.
 A fifth source of human knowledge, though not a philosophical

position, is authority.
 Authoritative knowledge is accepted as true because it comes from

experts or has been sanctified over time as tradition.

 In the classroom, the most common source of information is some

authority, such as a textbook, teacher, or reference work.

 Accepting authority as a source of knowledge has its advantages as

well as its dangers.

 Civilization would certainly stagnate if people refused to accept any

statement unless they personally verified it through direct,

firsthand experience.

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 4. Axiology and Logic
 Axiology is the study or theory of value. The term Axiology stems from
two Greek words-
  ―Axios‖, meaning ―value, worth‖, and ―logos‖, meaning ―reason/

theory/ symbol / science/study of‖. Hence, Axiology is the philosophical

study of value, which originally meant the worth of something.
 Axiology asks the philosophical questions of values that deal with

notions of what a
  person or a society regards as good or preferable, such as:
 What is a value?

  Where do values come from?

  How do we justify our values?

  How do we know what is valuable?

  What is the relationship between values and knowledge?

  What kinds of values exist?

  Can it be demonstrated that one value is better than another?

  Who benefits from values?

  Etc.

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 Axiology deals with the above and related issues of value in three areas, namely
Ethics, Aesthetics, and Social/Political Philosophy.
I. Ethics
 Ethics, which is also known as Moral Philosophy, is a science that deals with the

philosophical study of moral principles, values, codes, and rules, which may be
used as standards for determining what kind of human conduct/action is said to be
good or bad, right or wrong.
 Ethics has three main branches: meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.

Ethics raises various questions including:

 Normative Ethics refers to the ethical studies that attempt to study and determine

precisely the moral rules, principles, standards and goals by which human beings
might evaluate and judge the moral values of their conducts, actions and decisions.
 It is the reasoned search for principles of human conduct, including a critical study

of the major theories about which things are good, which acts are right, and which
acts are blameworthy.
 Meta-ethics is the highly technical philosophical discipline that deals with

investigation of the meaning of ethical terms, including a critical study of how

ethical statements can be verified. It is more concerned with the meanings of such
ethical terms as good or bad and right or wrong than with what we think is good or
bad and right or wrong.
 Applied Ethics is a normative ethics that attempts to explain, justify, apply moral

rules, principles, standards, and positions to specific moral problems, such as

capital punishment, euthanasia, abortion, adultery, animal right, and so on.

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 II. Aesthetics
 Aesthetics is the theory of beauty.
 It studies about the particular value of our artistic and aesthetic experiences.
 It deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory/emotional values, perception, and

matters of taste and sentiment.

 The following are typical Aesthetic questions:
 What is art?
  What is beauty?
  What is the relation between art and beauty?
  What is the connection between art, beauty, and truth?

Social/Political Philosophy
 Social/Political Philosophy studies about of the value judgments operating in a

civil society, be it social or political.

  The following questions are some of the major Social/Political Philosophy

primarily deal with:

 What form of government is best?
  What economic system is best?
  What is justice/injustice?
  What makes an action/judgment just/unjust?
  What is society?

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 4.2 Logic
 Logic is the study or theory of principles of right
reasoning.
 It deals with formulating the right principles of

reasoning; and developing scientific methods of

evaluating the validity and soundness of arguments.
 The following are among the various questions

raised by Logic:
 What is an argument; What does it mean to argue?

  What makes an argument valid or invalid

  What is a sound argument?

  What relation do premise and conclusion have in

argument?
  How can we formulate and evaluate an argument?

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5. Importance of Learning Philosophy
 The unexamined life is not worth living”.
 the various benefits of learning philosophy is that philosophy

provides students with the tools they need to critically

examine their own lives as well as the world in which they live.
 Some modern psychologists point out that human beings have

both maintenance and actualizing needs.

 The former refer to the physical and psychological needs that

we must satisfy in order to maintain ourselves as human

beings: food, shelter, security, social interaction, and the like.
 The later appear to be associated with self-fulfillment,

creativity, self-expression, realization of one‘s potential, and

being everything one can be.
 Although philosophy may not necessarily lead to this sort of

self-actualization, it can assist us to actualize ourselves by

promoting the ideal of self-actualization.

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 There are many characteristics of self-actualization to whose achievement
studying philosophy has a primordial contribution.
I.  Intellectual and Behavioral Independence:- This is the ability to develop
one‘s own opinion and beliefs. Among the primary goals of philosophy,
one is the integration of experiences into a unified, coherent, and
systematic world views.
II. Reflective Self-Awareness:- self-actualization cannot be realized without
a clear knowledge of oneself and the world in which one lives.
III. Flexibility, Tolerance, and Open-Mindedness:- by studying different
philosophical perspectives we can understand the evolutionary nature of
intellectual achievement and the ongoing development of human
thought.
IV. Creative and Critical Thinking: - this is the ability to develop original
philosophical perspective on issues, problems, and events; and to engage
them on a deeper level.
V. Conceptualized and well-thought-out value systems in morality, art,
politics, and the like: - since philosophy directly deals with morality, art,
politics, and other related value theories, studying philosophy provides us
with an opportunity to formulate feasible evaluations of value
 The other benefit of studying philosophy that should not be missed is
that it helps us to deal with the uncertainty of living. Philosophy helps us
to realize the absence of an absolutely ascertained knowledge.

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 Chapter Summary
 Logic, as a field of study, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study
of arguments and the principles and methods of right reasoning.
 Etymologically, the term ‗philosophy‘ can be defined as “love of wisdom”,

being wisdom a critical habit and eternal vigilance about all things and a
reverence for truth, whatever its form, and wherever its place.
 Philosophy, as an academic discipline, has its own salient features that

distinguish it from other academic disciplines.

 Its systematic, logical and flexible approach to the ultimate reality of the

universe, human life, knowledge experience, truth and values and its holistic
and evolutionary nature are some the fundamental features of philosophy.
 Philosophy uses its major branches to deal with the most important issues

human beings face, namely Metaphysics, Epistemology, Axiology, and Logic.

 Metaphysics deals with the studies of ultimate reality and existence.

 Epistemology deals with the study of the meaning, nature, source, scope and

possibility of human knowledge.

 Axiology deals with the philosophical studies of human values, such as moral

values, aesthetic values, as well as political and social values. Logic, on the
other hand, is a philosophical study of arguments and the methods and
principles of right reasoning.

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 Cont…
 Philosophy provides various fundamental benefits to learners.
 It provides students with the tools they need to critically

examine their own lives as well as the world in which they

live, it assist them to actualize themselves by promoting the
ideals of self-actualization.
 That is, studying philosophy helps to achieve the most

important characteristic of self-actualization: Intellectual and

Behavioral Independence, Reflective Self-Awareness,
Flexibility, Tolerance, and Open-Mindedness, Creative and
Critical Thinking, and Conceptualized and well-thought-out
value systems in morality, art, politics, and the like.
 Moreover, studying philosophy helps us to deal with the

uncertainty of living, meaning it helps us to realize the

absence of an absolutely ascertained knowledge, and hence
prepare ourselves to the ever growing human knowledge.

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