Wind loading and structural response

Lecture 22 Dr. J.D. Holmes

Free walls, roofs and billboards

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

• free-standing walls

• elevated walls and billboards

pw  pL
C pn  2
1
ρ
2 a U h

• free roofs and canopies

pU  pL
C pn  2
1
ρ
2 a U h
 Free walls, roofs and billboards

• attached canopies

• solar panels
 Free walls, roofs and billboards

free-standing walls
• wind at 90o to plane of wall (lecture 8, Chapter 4)

CD = 1.2 CD = 1.1

Ground Ground

TWO-DIMENSIONAL WALL SQUARE WALL

reference U taken as Uh (top of wall)

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

free-standing walls
• wind at 90o to plane of wall (lecture 8, Chapter 4)

reference U taken as Uh (top of wall)

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

free-standing walls
• wind at 90o to plane of wall

b
Maximu h
3 m
Cpn

Mean
1

00.1 1 10
100
b/h

Jensen Number (h/zo) = 50 to 160

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

free-standing walls
• wind at 45o to plane of wall
4

b
h
3
Maximum
Cpn
2

1
Mean

0
0.1 1 10 100
b/h

Jensen Number (h/zo) = 50 to 160

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

free-standing walls
• wind at 45o to plane of wall mean Cpn
b/h=2
1.6 1.0

b/h=3
1.9 1.4 0.7

b/h=5
2.2 1.6 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.4

b/h=10
2.7 1.8 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.6

Net pressure difference high for first 1-2 wall

heights from windward end
 Free walls, roofs and billboards

free-standing walls
• wind at 45o to plane of wall mean Cpn
4
225

no corner 45
y
45
3

Cpn corner 45

infinite 45
corner 225
1
no corner 225

0 0.1 1 10 100
y/h

Effect of corner is to reduce largest net pressure

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Parallel free-standing walls (noise barriers on urban freeways)

s
• wind at 0o to plane of walls h

5
4
Net pressure coefficients

3
Mean
2
r.m.s.
1
Maximum
0
Minimum
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10-1 0 10 20 30 40 50
-2
-3
wall spacing/wall height

Shielding

significant shielding effects up to 10 wall heights separation

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Billboards
• wind at 0o to plane of board mean Cpn

Cpn 1.5 =
=

effect of elevation : increase magnitude of mean net pressure coefficient

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Billboards
• wind at 45o to plane of board mean Cpn

2c

1.5 1.1 c
45 o

Ground
 Free walls, roofs and billboards
New table proposed for ASCE-7-05
• Solid freestanding walls and solid signs

B CASE A
WIND
NORM AL TO
WALL

SOLID SIGN OR
FREESTANDING WALL
s

h
CASE B
WIND AT 4 5°
TO WALL
GROUND SURFACE

• Force coefficients Cf given as function of clearance ratio, s/h, and aspect ratio, B/s
 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Walls on bridges
• wind at 0o to plane of wall

Mean
r.m.s.
Maximum s
5
Cp
upwind 4
wall 3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4
s/h

Coefficients based onU at top of wall : little effect of s/h ratio

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Free-standing roofs
pnet
flat

pnet
pitched

pnet troughed

Usual convention : positive net pressure is downwards

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Free-standing roofs

pnet
 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Free-standing roofs

pnet

Effect of stored goods : flow stagnates underneath - pnet goes more negative
 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Free-standing roofs pitched - full scale

d=9.3 m

Upper surface

Lower surface

0.5
Mean pressure

0
coefficient

0 4.65 9.3
-0.5

-1

-1.5
Distance from leading edge (m)

upper surface pressures dominate - especially near the ridge

 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Free-standing roofs pitched - model tests

5 degrees pitch 10 degrees pitch

15 degrees pitch 22.5 degrees pitch
30 degrees pitch

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 
Cp (mean)

0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
angle of attack (degrees)
high positive and negative values for
roof pitches of 22.5o and 30o
Cpn averaged over half a roof
 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Attached canopies (over loading bays etc.)

zero pitch - model scale
-4.0 wc
h
- Ĉ pn  1.0  1.3 c 

hc/h =1
 wc 
h

Cpn
hc

-3.0 or 4.0, whichever is the lesser

hc/h=0.75
-2.0 h
- Ĉ pn  1.0  0.4 c 

 wc 
-1.0
hc/h=0.5
or 4.0, whichever is the lesser

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2.5 3.0
Canopy height-to-width ratio, hc/wc

when mounted near the top of the wall, uplift force is high
 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Solar panels on roofs of buildings

wind loads are affected by many parameters :





d

e h2
c
h1

w
 Free walls, roofs and billboards

Solar panels

• ‘stand-off’ distance reduces net load normal to roof

• higher roof pitch produces less uplift force

• panel near eaves or gable ends experience higher loads

• generally better to mount parallel to roof slope ( = 0)

 End of Lecture 22

John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@[Link]