HOW THE ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE
UNIVERSE WERE FORMED
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
HOW THE ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE UNIVERSE WERE FORMED
Learning Competencies 1 to 4
Nucleosynthesis: The Beginning of Elements
1. The Formation of the Light Elements in the Big Bang Theory
2. The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation
and Evolution
3. The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
4. How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
What is Big Bang Theory?
The big bang theory is a
cosmological model stating
that the universe started its
expansion about 13.8 billion
years ago. Pieces of evidence
supporting this theory are (1)
occurrence of redshift, (2)
background radiation, and (3)
abundance of light elements.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Redshift
In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz measured the
wavelengths of light from spiral nebulae, which are interstellar
clouds of dust and ionized gases. They discovered that the light
from the nebulae increased in wavelength. They explained their
discovery as a Doppler shift.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Redshift
The Doppler shift or Doppler effect explains that when an object
gets closer to us, its light waves are compressed into shorter
wavelengths (blueshifted). On the other hand, when an object
moves away from us, its light waves are stretched into longer
wavelengths (redshifted).
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Redshift
Slipher and Wirtz then explained that the redshift or increase in
wavelength was due to the increase in the distance between the
Earth and the nebulae. They concluded that the redshift occurred
due to the expansion of space.
In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light from galaxies to
calculate the velocities and distances of these galaxies from the
Earth. He discovered that they were moving away from the Earth
and from each other. His calculations supported the theory that
the universe is expanding.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno
Penzias discovered a low, steady
“hum” from their Holmdel Horn
antenna (an antenna built to support
NASA’s Project Echo). They
concluded that the noise is Cosmic
Microwave Background Radiation
(CMBR), the remains of energy
created after the big bang expansion.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Abundance of Light Elements
The observed abundance of light elements supports the big bang
theory. The theory predicts that the universe is composed of 73%
hydrogen and 25% helium by mass. The prediction correlated to
the measured abundances of primordial material in unprocessed
gas in some parts of the universe with no stars.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing the light
elements during the big bang expansion.
In the beginning, the universe was very
hot that matter was fully ionized and
dissociated. Few seconds after the start
of the big bang, the universe was filled
with protons, neutrons, electrons,
neutrinos, and positrons. After the
first three minutes, the universe cooled
down to a point where atomic nuclei
can form.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Protons and neutrons combined to form atomic nuclei such as
deuterium.
However, the temperature of the universe was still much greater
than the binding energy of deuterium. Binding energy is the
energy required to break down a nucleus into its components.
Therefore, deuterium easily decayed upon formation.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
When the temperature cooled down below 1010 K, deuterium
nuclei combined with other nuclei to form heavier ones.
Helium-3 was formed from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei
and a release of a neutron.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Helium-4 was produced from the fusion of deuterium and tritium.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Tritium or Hydrogen-3 was produced from the fusion of two
deuterium nuclei and a release of a proton.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Helium-4 was also synthesized from deuterium and helium-3.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
For the first three minutes, a substantial amount of neutrons
was converted into helium-4 nuclei, before their decay. Helium
then combined to other nuclei to form heavier ones such as
lithium-7 and beryllium-7.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Lithium-7 was synthesized from helium-4 and tritium.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Beryllium-7 was produced from helium-3 and helium-4.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Among the light elements formed, deuterium, helium-3,
helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable. Beryllium-7 was unstable
and decayed spontaneously to lithium-7.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
How were elements heavier than beryllium formed?
Light elements – hydrogen, helium, lithium, and beryllium,
were formed during the big bang nucleosynthesis.
Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar
nucleosynthesis. The abundances of these elements change as
the stars evolve.
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are
formed within stars.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the
collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud. As the cloud
collapses, the fragments contract to form a stellar core called
protostar.
Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts and its
temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10
million K, nuclear reactions begin.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase
pressure and stop the contraction. When the contraction stops, the
gravitational equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become a
main sequence star.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium
via the proton-proton chain. When most of the hydrogen in the
core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and the pressure in the core
decreases.
Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and hydrogen
burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while
hydrogen is converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core.
The star has become a red giant.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to
carbon, then the rate of fusion decreases. Gravity again squeezes
the star.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
In a low-mass star (with mass less than twice the Sun’s mass), there
is not enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is
depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown off
into space. The only thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon
core. The star becomes a white dwarf.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has
enough mass such that temperature and pressure increase to a point
where carbon fusion can occur.
The star goes through a series of stages where heavier elements are
fused in the core and in the shells around the core. The element
oxygen is formed from carbon fusion; neon from oxygen fusion;
magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and
iron from silicon fusion.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon
fusion. Elements lighter than iron can be fused because when two
of these elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass
lower than the sum of their masses. The missing mass is released as
energy.
Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases energy.
However, this does not happen to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing
energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei requires an input of energy.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron can be produced
in a massive star, but no elements heavier than iron are produced.
When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the
star is doomed. Gravity squeezes the core until the star explodes
and releases a large amount of energy.
The star explosion is called a supernova.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are
formed in the cores and shells of the stars through nuclear fusion
reactions. Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter
elements to form heavier ones. It requires very high temperatures
and pressures. It is the reaction that fuels the stars since stars
have very high temperatures and pressures in their cores.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most abundant in space.
Thus, the formation of heavier elements starts with hydrogen.
There are two dominant hydrogen burning processes, the proton-
proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
Proton-Proton Chain
The proton-proton chain is a series of thermonuclear reactions
in the stars. It is the main source of energy radiated by the sun
and other stars. It happens due to the large kinetic energies of the
protons. If the kinetic energies of the protons are high enough to
overcome their electrostatic repulsion, then proton-proton chain
proceeds.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
The chain starts when two protons fuse.
When the fused proton breaks, one proton is
transmuted into a neutron.
The proton and neutron then pairs, forming
an isotope of hydrogen called deuterium.
Another proton collides with a deuterium
forming a helium-3 nucleus and a gamma
ray.
Finally, two helium-3 nuclei collide, and a
helium-4 is created with the release of two
protons.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle
For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen
cycle is the more favorable route in converting hydrogen to
helium.
Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle is a catalytic
process. Carbon-12 acts a catalyst for the cycle. It is used in the
initial reaction and is regenerated in the final one.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up
to iron, then what type of nucleosynthesis produced the
elements heavier than iron?
Nucleosynthesis is the process by which new nuclei are formed
from pre-existing or seed nuclei.
The big bang nucleosynthesis produced hydrogen and helium,
whereas the stellar nucleosynthesis produced elements up to iron
in the core of the stars.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up
to iron, then what type of nucleosynthesis produced the
elements heavier than iron?
The stellar nucleosynthesis produced nuclei that are heavier than
helium-4 by nuclear fusion. It started by fusing two helium-4
nuclei to form beryllium-8 accompanied by a release of energy in
the form of gamma radiation (γ). This process continues until
nickel-56.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up
to iron, then what type of nucleosynthesis produced the
elements heavier than iron?
However, nickel-56 is unstable and undergoes positron (0+1β)
emission. Recall that positron emission results in a nucleus with
lower atomic number.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up
to iron, then what type of nucleosynthesis produced the
elements heavier than iron?
Nickel-56 radioactively decomposes to a more stable iron-56
through subsequent emission of two positrons.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up
to iron, then what type of nucleosynthesis produced the
elements heavier than iron?
The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56
because fusion reaction becomes unfavorable. This is because the
nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy that holds the
nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different
pathways are needed for the synthesis of heavier nuclei.
Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture
processes.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
Neutron Capture
In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. The
addition of neutron produces a heavier isotope of the element.
For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
Neutron Capture
The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes beta (0-1β)
decay. This decay results in an increase in the number of protons
of the nucleus by 1. Hence, a heavier nucleus is formed.
Beta decay results in the formation of a new element. For
example, the unstable iron-59 undergoes beta decay to produce
cobalt-59.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
Neutron Capture
Neutron capture can either be slow or rapid.
Slow neutron capture or s-process happens when there is a
small number of neutrons. It is termed slow because the rate of
neutron capture is slow compared to the rate of 0-1β decay.
Therefore, if a 0-1β decay occurs, it almost always occurs before
another neutron can be captured.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
Neutron Capture
Rapid neutron capture or r-process, on the other hand, happens
when there is a large number of neutrons. It is termed rapid
because the rate of neutron capture is fast that an unstable
nucleus may still be combined with another neutron just before it
undergoes 0-1β decay.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
Neutron Capture
The r-process is associated with a supernova. The temperature
after a supernova is tremendously high that the neutrons are
moving very fast. Because of their speed, they can immediately
combine with the already heavy isotopes. This kind of
nucleosynthesis is also called supernova nucleosynthesis.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
Proton Capture
Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a proton in the
nucleus. It happens after a supernova, when there is a tremendous
amount of energy available. It is because the addition of a proton
to the nucleus is not favorable because of Coulombic repulsion,
which is the repulsive force between particles with the same
charge.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
Proton Capture
Proton capture produces a heavier nucleus that is different from
the seed nucleus.
For example, molybdenum-94 undergoes proton capture to
produce technetium-95.
QUIZ!!!
WHAT IS THE MISSING PART OF THE
REACTION?
1.
2.
3.
WHAT IS THE MISSING PART OF THE
REACTION?
4.
5.
WHAT IS THE MISSING PART OF THE
REACTION?
6.
7.
ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TRY IT!
6.
7.
