CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

DEVELOPMENT
A Review on Important Concepts
 Outline of Topics
• Basic Concepts of Human Development
• Theories on Human Development
• Development of the Learners at Various Stages
 HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
 Development
 the way that people grow and change as
they age.
 It is an increase in the complexity of
function and skill progression.
 It is a capacity and skill of person to
function.
 Example: Keisha has developed her ability
to walk, talk, and to run.
 Growth
• the physical process of development, particularly
the process of becoming physically larger.
• It is quantifiable, meaning that it can be
measured, and it is mostly influenced by genetics.
• Indicators of growth include height, weight,
bone size and dentition.
• Example: The year that she was 11, Keisha got
taller by two inches. This is an example of
growth because it involves her getting physically
taller and is quantifiable (two inches).
 Maturation
• the physical, intellectual, or emotional
process of development.
• Maturation is often not quantifiable, and it
too is mostly influenced by genetics.
• Example: As Keisha became older, her
brain developed in a way that meant she
was able to handle more complex tasks
than she could before.
 Human Development
 the pattern of movement or change that
begins at conception and continues through
the life span
 includes growth and decline
 can be positive or negative
Major Principles of Human
Development
1. Development progresses in a step-by-
step fashion.
 It is orderly, sequential, and
proceeds from the simple to the
complex.
Each achieved behavior forms the
foundation for more advanced
behaviors.
2. Rates of development vary among
children as well as among
developmental areas in a single child.
 Although the patterns and sequences for
growth and development are usually the same
for all children, the rates at which individual
children reach developmental stages will be
different.
2. Rates of development vary among
children as well as among
developmental areas in a single child.
 Although the patterns and sequences for
growth and development are usually the same
for all children, the rates at which individual
children reach developmental stages will be
different.
3. Development is characterized by increasing
specificity of function (differentiation) as well
as integration of these specific functions into a
larger response pattern.
– A good example of this principle is the infant
startle reflex. When an infant is startled, his entire
body tenses and his arms move out to the side.
With age, this reflex becomes integrated into more
specific behavioral patterns such that a startled
preschooler will tense only the shoulder and neck
muscles.
4. Neurological development contributes
significantly to the acquisition of physical
skills in young children. Physical development
proceeds in cephalocaudal and proximodistal
directions.
– each change in the child’s development should
result in an increasingly refined level of skill
development
Development proceeds from
the head downward.
– describes the progression of
body control from the head to
the lower parts of the body.
– For example, an infant will
achieve head, upper trunk, and
arm control before lower trunk
and leg control.
Development proceeds from
the center of the body
outward.
– describes progress from the
central portions of the body
(i.e., the spinal cord) to the
distal or peripheral parts.
5. Development of any
structure follows a
sequential pattern;
however, there appear to
be specific times during
development in which a
developing structure is
most sensitive to external
conditions.
6. All development is
interrelated.
7. Development is influenced by
heredity and environment.
– A child’s genetic inheritance (i.e., heredity)
provides the basic foundation for many
physical and personality attributes, but the
influences of social, cultural, and familial
variables (i.e., environment) also
contribute to development.
8. Development depends on maturation
and learning.
– The biological changes occur in sequential order and
give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and
nervous system account largely for maturation. These
changes in the brain and nervous system help children to
improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical)
skills.
Definition of Childhood and
Adolescence
 Childhood
• refers to the time or state of being a child, the
early stage in the existence or development of
something. It also connotes a time of innocence,
where one is free from responsibility but
vulnerable to forces in the environment.
Adolescence
• came from the Latin adolescentia,
from adolscere “to grow up”. It is
the period of psychological and
social transition between childhood
and adulthood. The transition
involves biological, social and
psychological changes. The World
Health Organization (WHO) defines
adolescence as the period of life
between 10 and 19 years of age.
APPROACHES TO HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Traditional Perspective

• Believes that individuals will show extensive

change from birth to adolescence, little or no
change in adulthood and decline in late old age
Life-span Approach

• Believes that even in adulthood,

developmental change takes place as it does
during childhood.
What are the
characteristics of the
Life-span
perspective?
Development is LIFELONG.

It does not end in adulthood.

No developmental stage dominates
development.
Development is
MULTIDIMENSIONAL.

Development consists of biological,

cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions.
Development is PLASTIC.

Development is possible throughout the

lifespan.
Development is CONTEXTUAL.

Individuals are changing beings in a changing

world.
Development involves GROWTH,
MAINTENANCE and REGULATION.

Growth, maintenance and regulation are 3

goals of human development. The goals of
individuals vary among developmental stages.
Principles of Child Development
and Learning that Inform Practice
 All areas of development and learning are
important.

 Learning and development follow

sequences.
 Development and learning
proceed at varying rates.

 Development and learning

result from an interaction of
maturation and experience.
 Early experiences have profound effects on
development and learning.

 Development proceeds toward greater

complexity, self-regulation, and symbolic or
representational capacities.
 Children develop best when they have
secure relationships.

 Development and learning occur in and

are influenced by multiple social and
cultural contexts.
 Children learn in a variety of ways.
 Play is an important vehicle for developing
self-regulation and promoting language,
cognition, and social competence.
 Development and learning advance when
children are challenged.
 Children’s experiences shape their motivation
and approaches to learning.
Other Principles of
Development
Development proceeds from the head
downward. 
• This is called the cephalocaudal principle. This
principle describes the direction of growth and
development.
• According to this principle, the child gains control of
the head first, then the arms, and then the legs.
– Infants develop control of the head and face movements
within the first two months after birth. In the next few
months, they are able to lift themselves up by using their
arms. By 6 to 12 months of age, infants start to gain leg
control and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk.
Coordination of arms always precedes coordination of legs.
Development proceeds from the center of
the body outward. 
• This is the principle of proximodistal development
that also describes the direction of development.
This means that the spinal cord develops before
outer parts of the body.
• The child's arms develop before the hands and the
hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes.
• Finger and toe muscles (used in fine motor
dexterity) are the last to develop in physical
development.
Development depends on maturation and
learning.
• Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of
biological growth and development.
• The biological changes occur in sequential order
and give children new abilities.
• Changes in the brain and nervous system account
largely for maturation.
– These changes in the brain and nervous system help
children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor
(physical) skills. Also, children must mature to a certain
point before they can progress to new skills (Readiness).
Development proceeds from the simple
(concrete) to the more complex. 

• As children develop further in cognitive skills,

they are able to understand a higher and more
complex relationship between objects and
things; that is, that an apple and orange exist in
a class called fruit. The child cognitively is
then capable of classification.
Growth and development is a continuous
process. 
• As a child develops, he or she adds to the
skills already acquired and the new skills
become the basis for further achievement and
mastery of skills. Most children follow a
similar pattern.
• Also, one stage of development lays the
foundation for the next stage of development.
Growth and development proceed
from the general to specific. 

• In motor development, the infant will be able to grasp

an object with the whole hand before using only the
thumb and forefinger.
• The infant's first motor movements are very
generalized, undirected, and reflexive, waving arms
or kicking before being able to reach or creep toward
an object.
– Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more
refined (smaller) muscle movements.
There are individual rates of growth and
development.
• Each child is different and the rates at which
individual children grow is different.
• Although the patterns and sequences for
growth and development are usually the same
for all children, the rates at which individual
children reach developmental stages will be
different.
 An understanding of the
principles of development helps
us to plan appropriate activities
and stimulating and enriching
experiences for children, and
provides a basis for
understanding how to encourage
and support young children's
learning.
The Stages of Development and
Developmental Tasks
 John W. Santrock’s Periods of
Development
• The prenatal period is the time from conception to
birth. It involves tremendous growth—from a single
cell to an organism complete with brain and
behavioral capabilities, produced in approximately a
9-month period.
John W. Santrock’s Periods of
Development
• Infancy is the developmental
period extending from birth to
18 or 24 months. Infancy is a
time of extreme dependence
upon adults. Many
psychological activities are just
beginning—language,
symbolic thought,
sensorimotor coordination, and
social learning, for example.
 John W. Santrock’s Periods of
Development
• Early childhood is the developmental period extending from
the end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years. This period is
sometimes called the “preschool years.” During this time,
young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to
care for themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend
many hours in play with peers. First grade typically marks the
end of early childhood.
 John W. Santrock’s Periods of
Development
• Middle and late childhood is the
developmental period extending from
about 6 to 11 years of age, approximately
corresponding to the elementary school
years. This period is sometimes called
the “elementary school years.” The
fundamental skills of reading, writing,
and arithmetic are mastered. The child is
formally exposed to the larger world and
its culture. Achievement becomes a more
central theme of the child’s world, and
self-control increases.
 John W. Santrock’s Periods of
Development
• Adolescence is the developmental period of transition from
childhood to early adulthood, entered at approximately 10 to
12 years of age and ending at 18 to 22 years of age.
Adolescence begins with rapid physical changes. This point in
development, the pursuit of independence and an identity are
prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract, and idealistic.
More time is spent outside of the family.
John W. Santrock’s Periods of
Development
• Early adulthood is the
developmental period beginning in
the late teens or early twenties and
lasting through the thirties. It is a
time of establishing personal and
economic independence, career
development, and, for many,
selecting a mate, learning to live
with someone in an intimate way,
starting a family, and rearing
children.
 John W. Santrock’s Periods of
Development
• Middle adulthood is the
developmental period beginning at
approximately 40 years of age and
extending to about 60. It is a time
of expanding personal and social
involvement and responsibility; of
assisting the next generation in
becoming competent, mature
individuals; and of reaching and
maintaining satisfaction in a
career.
 John W. Santrock’s Periods of
Development
• Late adulthood is the developmental period beginning in the
sixties or seventies and lasting until death. It is a time of
adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review,
retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.
 Havighurst’s Age Periods and
Developmental Task

• Infancy and Early Childhood

– Learning to walk
– Learning to take solid food
– Learning to talk
– Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
– Learning sexual differences & sexual modesty
– Achieving psychological stability forming simple concepts of
social and physical reality
– Learning to relate emotionally to parents, siblings & other people
– Learning to distinguish right from wrong & developing a
conscience
 Havighurst’s Age Periods and
Developmental Task
• Middle Childhood
– Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
– Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing
organism
– Learning to get along with age mates
– Learning an appropriate masculine and feminine social role
– Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing & calculating
– Developing concept necessary for everyday living
– Developing conscience, morality & scale of values
– Achieving personal independence
– Developing attitudes toward social groups & institutions
 Havighurst’s Age Periods and
Developmental Task
• Adolescence
– Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic
competence
– Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
– Acquiring a set of values & an ethical system as a guide to behavior
– Achieving emotional independence from parents & other adults
– Achieving assurance of economic independence
– Selecting and preparing for an occupation
– Preparing for marriage and family life
– Achieving a new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes
– Achieving masculine or feminine social role
– Accepting ones physique & using the body effectively
 Havighurst’s Age Periods and
Developmental Task
• Young Adult /Early Adulthood
– Selecting a mate
– Learning to live with a partner
– Starting a family
– Rearing children
– Managing a home
– Getting started in an occupation
– Taking on civic responsibility
– Finding a congenital social group
 Havighurst’s Age Periods and
Developmental Task
• Middle Adulthood
– Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
– Establishing and maintaining economic
standard of living
– Assisting teenage children to become
responsible and happy adults
– Developing adult-leisure time activities
– Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
 Havighurst’s Age Periods and
Developmental Task
• Late Adulthood
– Adjusting to decreasing physical strength & health
– Adjusting to retirement & reduced income
– Adjusting to death of a spouse
– Establishing an explicit affiliation with one age
group
Factors Affecting
Growth &
Development
Genetic & Environmental Influences

• Genetic History
– The child’s genetic history influences a large
extent of his growth.
Genetic & Environmental Influences

• Maternal Nutrition.
– One important factor affecting development is
maternal nutrition. During conception, it is the
mother that supplies all the nutrients to the fetus
through her food intake.
Genetic & Environmental Influences
• Child Nutrition
– Adequate nutrition contributes to a continuous
brain growth, rapid skeletal and muscular
development.
Genetic & Environmental Influences

• Medical Conditions
– Children born with or develop serious medical
conditions can have stunted growth if not
treated.
Genetic & Environmental Influences

• Exercise
– Regular physical activity promotes growth by
strengthening bones and muscles. However high
impact sports can impede growth if done
excessively.
Genetic & Environmental Influences
• Sleep
– About 70 to 80 percent of growth hormone is
secreted during sleep.
Genetic & Environmental Influences
• Emotional Well-being
– Children must be nurtured with love, patience, and
understanding. They need supportive family
environment. When children experience anxieties
brought by emotional neglect and too much tension,
growth is also stunted. Psychosocial growth failure, an
extremely rare condition, has consequences such as
malnutrition.
Parenting Styles
Authoritative Permissive
• high • low
demamdingne demandingnes
ss s
• high • high
responsiveness responsiveness

Authoritarian Negligent
• high • low
demandingnes demandingnes
s s
• low • low
responsiveness responsiveness
 Parenting Styles

Demanding but
responsive; encourages
independence; warm and
nurturing; disciplines
Social competence and
Authoritative with explanation;
responsibility
maintain fair and
reasonable limits; have
realistic expectation of
the child
 Parenting Styles

Demanding; consistent in
enforcing standards;
restrictive; controlling; Ineffective social
set subjective and/ or interaction; aggressive
Authoritarian unreasonable limits; use behaviour; poor self
corporal punishment, esteem
sarcasm, withdrawal of
love and threatens.
 Parenting Styles

Responsive; warm;
undemanding; do not Dependence; difficulty
set rules or very few if in controlling impulses;
Permissive any; uses punishment lacks perseverance;
inconsistently and inadequate emotional
infrequently; exercises control
little control
 Parenting Styles

Unresponsive; little
warmth or
Behaviour problems;
nurturance; sets few
poor orientation to
limits and provides
Negligent little to no supervision;
work and school;
delinquent behaviour
little commitment to
in later adolescence
their roles as
caregivers
 Social Environment Factors
Unoccupied

• the child appears not to be playing but directs his attention on anything that interests him

Solitary play

• the child is alone and is focused on his own activity while being unaware of what others are doing

Onlooker play

• the child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them but does not enter into play with them
 Social Environment Factors
Parallel play

• the child plays with toys similar to those near him, but only plays beside and not with them. No
interaction takes place.

Associative play

• the child plays with others there is interaction among them, but no task assignment, rules and
organization agreed upon

Cooperative play

• the child plays with others bound by rules and roles. The activity is organized and there is a goal to be
achieved
Developmental Theories and
Other Relevant Theories
Developmental Theories and Other Relevant
Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

 Freud’s Stages of
Psychosexual Development

Freud in 1921
 An Overview

The Psychosexual Stages

Define how human personality develops from our
birth up to and including early adulthood.
Freud believed that children experience unconscious
sexual fixations as they grow older.
These sexual urges change drastically after each stage.
Oral / Anal / Phallic / Latency / Genital
Without a proper resolution following each stage, we
may experience faults in our future personalities.
 The Oral Stage (0 - 1 and ½)

In this stage, the mouth is the infant’s primary

erogenous zone, meaning that the oral cavity is where
libidal energy is most focused.
Gains pleasure through sucking and eating; the child
ultimately develops a sense of comfort through oral
stimulation.
However, the child eventually must become less
dependent on caretakers as it grows.
In theory, an infant who is neglected (under-fed) or
overprotected (over-fed) may become orally fixated with
the onset of adulthood.
 The Oral Stage (continued)

Fixation in this stage may result in

issues with dependency and
aggression.
Moreover, this fixation can lead to
issues with eating, drinking,
smoking, and even obsessive habits
like nail-biting.
If the child is not able to successfully
resolve his or her sexual urges in the
oral stage, then the child will not be
able to move on to the next stage of
psychosexual development, the Anal
Stage.
 The Anal Stage (1 and ½ - 3)

The anal stage begins near the age of one, when the child
is just beginning to toilet train.
The erogenous zone shifts from the oral cavity to the
anal region with the realization that going to the
bathroom is a pleasurable event.
Freud believed that the unconscious mind was going
through a conflict during this time.
The “id” of our unconscious represents the part of our
being that finds pleasure in expelling feces, while the
“ego” and “superego” signify culture’s pressure to resist
succumbing to bodily functions.
 The Anal Stage (continued)

Reoccurring theme: self-control

Two things can go wrong in this stage- too much control or
too little control. Both lead to anal fixation.
If parents exhibit either of these extremes during toilet
training, then a child may grow up to be anally expulsive or
anally retentive.
“Anally expulsive” – limited levels of self-control, defiance,
hostility, are disorganized / scatterbrained
“Anally retentive” – Rigid, obsessively organized, and overly
subservient to authority.
After moving past the Anal Stage, the child will transition
into the Phallic Stage.
 The Phallic Stage (3-6)

The most intricate of the five stages; erogenous

zone shifts from the anus to the genitals.
Freud developed his theory from the male
perspective (thus, “phallic” = “penis”)
Males have the potential to develop an Oedipal
Complex, while females can develop an Electra
Complex.
Oedipus Complex: Males are sexually intrigued
by their mothers and jealous of their father’s
intrusion.
Castration anxiety may develop as the boy
understands that his mother does not have a
penis; the child will repress his love for his
Oedipus the King, solving the
Riddle of the Sphinx
mother and attempt to become like his father,
thus developing a “superego”.
 The Phallic Stage (continued)

Electra Complex: Girls begin to become attracted to

their fathers, and fall into a “penis envy” period (in
contrast to castration anxiety).
Failure to resolve either of the complexes can lead to
fixation in this stage.
Phallic character: recklessness, resoluteness, self-
assuredness, and narcissism.
Unresolved incestuous complexes can lead to a
difficulty in dealing with authority figures and a
tendency to have trouble with loving relationships.
 The Phallic Stage (continued)

Some believe that children who develop in single-

parent or abusive households never move past the
Phallic Stage, leading to “daddy issues”, etc.
Freud also believed that fixation in this stage
sometimes resulted in homosexuality due to the child’s
inability to identify properly with a rival parent (gender
identity problems).
If the Phallic Stage is resolved properly by the ego, the
child will then move into the Latency Stage, which is
the most peaceful interval in a person’s psychosexual
development.
 The Latency Stage (8-13/Puberty)

Not necessarily a stage in psychosexual development; is

more of transitioning period between the Phallic and
Genital Stages.
Sexual drive is dormant during this time
Children in this stage repress their sexual desires to focus on
areas like academics and athletics, etc.
Same-sex friendships develop during this time as well (not
to be confused with homosexual relationships)
The Latency Stage is vital to a person’s exploration of
academic pursuits and subjects that are not sexually
oriented; however, this perspective soon changes radically.
 The Genital Stage (From Puberty-?)

Following the Latency Stage, the

child’s sexual urges are aroused
once more; this time, the erogenous
zone shifts to the genitals.
This stage is inversely related to the
other psychosexual stages, meaning
that less exposure in the other
stages will results in higher levels of
sexual expression in the Genital
Stage.
For example, if a child were to focus
on the Phallic Stage, then he would
Improper transitioning into the
establish Oedipal defense
mechanisms and would not move Genital stage may result in failure to
form heterosexual relationships in the
into the Latency Stage properly (and
future.
then on to the Genital Stage).
 Conclusion

According to Freud, proper movement through each of the

five psychosexual stages shouldn’t result in any consequences.
However, conflicts in specific psychosexual stages can impact
the life of an individual drastically.
Furthermore, the shifting of the erogenous zones from stage
to stage represents a child’s maturation and development.
Freud thought that these stages symbolized our desires and
conflicts within our unconscious minds.
However, not many psychologists still recognize his work
(including these stages) as valid because of a lack of any
evidence or proper research.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
of Development
“Healthy children
will not fear life if
their elders have
integrity enough not
to fear death.”

- Erik Erikson
Introduction to the Psychosocial Stages
of Development
1) The term “psychosocial” is derived from
psychological (or the root, ‘psycho’, relate
to mind, brain, personality) and social
(external relationships and environment)
2) Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by
Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended his
theory and incorporated cultural and social
aspects into Freud’s theory.
3) The epigenetic principle
“This principle says that we develop
through a predetermined unfolding
of our personalities in eight stages.
Our progress through each stage is
in part determined by our success
or lack of success in all the previous
stages.”
4) Each stage involves a psychosocial
crisis of two opposing emotional forces.
A helpful term used by Erikson for
these opposing forces is “contrary
dispositions”
5) For Erikson, man is driven by the desire
to affiliate with other people.
 Definition of Terms
• Syntonic – positive disposition
• Dystonic – negative disposition
• Virtue – healthy balance between the
positive and negative dispositions
• Maladaptation – too much positive, too
little negative
• Malignancy – too much negative, too little
positive
 Develop- Eriks Psychosocial crisis Maladaptation (too Malignancy Psychosocial
mental on’s much +) (too little -) (too much -) strength/
Stage Virtue
Period s (too little +)
Syntonic Dystonic

Infancy 1 Trust Mistrust Sensory Withdrawal Hope

Maladjustment

Toddlerhood 2 Autonomy Shame & Impulsiveness Compulsiveness Willpower or

Doubt Determinatio
n

Early 3 Initiative Guilt Ruthlessness Inhibition Courage

Childhood

Middle & Late 4 Industry Inferiority Narrow Virtuosity Inferiority Competence

Childhood
Developme Erikson’ Psychosocial crisis Maladaptatio Malignancy Psychosoc
ntal Period s Stages n (too much (too much -) ial
+) (too little -) (too little +) strength/
Syntonic Dystonic Virtue

Adolescence 5 Ego Identity Role Fanaticism Repudiation Fidelity

Confusion
Early 6 Intimacy Isolation Promiscuity Exclusion Love
Adulthood

Middle 7 Generativity Stagnation Overextensio Rejectivity Care

Adulthood n

OldAge 8 Integrity Despair Presumption Disdain Wisdom

Stage 1: Trust vs.
Mistrust
 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Infancy (12-18 months)

 The goal is to develop trust without
completely eliminating the capacity for
mistrust.
 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
 Sensory maladjustment – overly trusting, gullible,
not believing that anyone can mean them wrong
 Withdrawal – characterized by depression,
paranoia, and possibly, psychosis.

Virtue to develop: HOPE

 the strong belief that even when things are not
going well, they will work out well in the end.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

 Toddlerhood (18 mos. – 3 or 4 years old)

 Parents need to be “firm but tolerant” at this stage.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

 Impulsiveness – a shameless willfulness that will

lead the person to jump into things without
considering one’s abilities
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

 Compulsiveness – a feeling that everything must be

done perfectly or else “don’t even try doing it”
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

Virtue to develop: WILLPOWER/ DETERMINATION

 the “can do” attitude with appropriate modesty
Stage 3: Initiative vs.
Guilt
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

• Early childhood (3-6 years old)

• Initiative – a positive response to challenges, taking
on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling
purposeful
• The stage when the capacity for moral judgment has
arrived (guilt)
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
• Ruthlessness – taking the initiative without
considering who they step on to achieve their goals
(Sociopathy – extreme form)
• Inhibition – too much guilt, the fear of starting and
taking a lead for if it fails, he/she will be the one to
blame
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

Virtue to develop: COURAGE

the capacity for action despite of
clear understanding of your
limitations and past failings.
Stage 4: Industry vs.
Inferiority
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

o Middle & late childhood/ School-age ( 6-12 years old)

o Children must tame the imagination and dedicate
themselves to education and learning the social skills
their society requires of them
o Children must learn that there is pleasure not only in
conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out.
o They must learn the feeling of success in many aspects.
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

o Narrow virtuosity – an attitude of children who are not

allowed to be children, the ones that parents or teachers
push into one area of competence, without allowing the
development of broader interests.
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

o Inertia – inferiority complexes; “If at first you don’t

succeed, don’t ever try again” attitude
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

o Virtue to develop: COMPETENCY

– industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep one
sensibly humble.
 Stage 5: Ego
Identity vs. Role
Confusion
 Stage 5: Ego identity vs. Role confusion

• Puberty/ Adolescence to 18 or 20 years old

• Ego identity – means knowing who you are and how
you fit in to the rest of society.

Society should provide clear

rites of passage, certain
accomplishments and rituals that
help to distinguish the adult
from the child.
Rites of Passage
 Stage 5: Ego identity vs. Role confusion

• Role confusion – an uncertainty about one’s place

in society and the world
When an adolescent is confronted by role confusion,
he or she is suffering from identity crisis.

Psychosocial moratorium
- a little time out from the
society one grew up in
 Stage 5: Ego identity vs. Role confusion
• Fanaticism – too much ego identity, a person is so
involved in a particular role in society that there is no
room left for tolerance
• Repudiation – the lack of identity, rejecting
membership in the world of adults: this is
characterized by teenagers who go against the norms
of the society
 Stage 5: Ego identity vs. Role confusion

Virtue to develop: FIDELITY

 Loyalty, the ability to live by
society’s standards despite their
imperfections, incompleteness and
inconsistencies
Stage 6: Intimacy vs.
Isolation
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Early adulthood (18 to 30 years old)

• The task is to achieve some degree of
intimacy, as opposed to remaining in
isolation.
• Intimacy – the ability to be close to
others
• During this stage, a person does not
need to fear of “losing one’s self”, as
adolescents to because one should
already have a clear view of himself
as part of the society.
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

The “fear of commitment” is an

example of immaturity at this stage.
This fear isn’t always obvious.

Examples:
 Putting off the progress of
relationships
 Establishing identity through
couple-hood
 Not involving oneself with social
groups
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Promiscuity – the tendency to become intimate too freely,

too easily and without any depth to intimacy
• Exclusion – the tendency to isolate oneself from love,
friendship, and community, and to develop hatefulness in
compensation for one’s loneliness

Virtue to develop: LOVE

 Being able to put aside
differences and antagonisms
through “mutuality of
devotion”
Stage 7: Generativity
vs. Stagnation
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Middle adulthood (middle 20s to late 50s)

- The period when one is actively involved in raising
children

 Generativity – an extension of love into the future

 Stagnation – self-absorption, caring for no-one
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Overextension – trying to be so generative that one

looses time for himself/ herself, for relaxation and
rest.
• Rejectivity – too much stagnation that one no longer
contributes and participates in the society
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

• This is the stage of “midlife crisis”. In a person’s

panic at getting older and not having experienced or
accomplished what he would in his youth, they try to
“recapture youth”.

Virtue to develop: CARE

 Capacity for caring for the rest of one’s life
Stage 8: Ego integrity
vs. Despair
 Stage 8: Ego integrity vs. Despair

• Old age (somewhere around 60 onwards)

• This stage seems to be the most difficult of all.
• Involves being detached from society, retirement and
a sense of biological uselessness

Some old people become depressed, spiteful,

paranoid, hypochondriacal, or developing
patterns of senility with or without physical
bases.
 Stage 8: Ego integrity vs. Despair

• Ego integrity – coming to terms with your life and the

end of life;
– being able to look back and accept the course of
events, the choices made, the life lived, and not
fearing death.
 Stage 8: Ego integrity vs. Despair

• Presumption – presuming ego integrity without facing

the difficulties of old age; a person believes that he
alone is right and does not respect the ideas of the
young
• Disdain – the person becomes very negative and
appears to hate life

Virtue to develop: WISDOM

 Capacity of approaching death without fear;
generosity of spirit
History of Psychosocial Theory

• Erikson was one of the first psychologists

to become aware of the influence of
culture on behavior.
• He placed more emphasis on the external
world, meaning depression and wars.
• The three key factors to Erikson’s theory
are the interaction of the body, mind, and
cultural influences.
 Erikson’s Philosophy

• His basic philosophy rests on two themes:

– The world gets bigger as we go along
– Failure is cumulative.
• If an individual has dealt with a terrible
past as a child, they might not be able to
cope with scenarios that life presents later
on. However, human spirit can always be
ignited and overcome these problems.
Daniel Goleman’s Emotional
Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is a type
of social intelligence that affords
the individual the ability to
monitor his own and other’s
emotions, to discriminate among
them, and to use the information
to guide his thinking and actions.
 The Three Components of EQ

• Awareness of one’s emotions

 The Three Components of EQ

• Ability to express one’s emotions

appropriately
 The Three Components of EQ

• Capacity to channel emotions into

the pursuit of worthwhile objectives
Qualities That Make Up EQ

• Self awareness.
– The ability to recognize a feeling
as it happens.
Qualities That Make Up EQ

• Mood management.
– The ability to change mood from
good to bad and vice versa.
Qualities That Make Up EQ

• Self motivation.
– Trying to feel more enthusiastic
and developing zeal and
confidence to achieve a concrete
goal.
Qualities That Make Up EQ

• Impulse control.
– The ability to delay impulse in the
service of a goal.
Qualities That Make Up EQ

• People skills.
– the ability to feel for another
person
 Jean Piaget’s
Cognitive
Development Theory
Basic Cognitive
Concepts
Schema
the cognitive
structure by which
individuals
intellectually adapt to
and organize their
environment
Assimilation
the process of fitting
new experience into an
existing created
schema
Accommodation
the process of
creating a new
schema
Equilibration
achieving proper
balance between
assimilation and
accommodation.
Stages of Cognitive
Development
1. Sensorimotor
(birth to 2 years)
Object Permanence
– ability attained in this
stage where he knows that
an object still exists even
when out of sight
 2. Preoperational
Stage ( 2 to 7 years)
Symbolic Function
– the ability to
represent objects and
events
Egocentrism
– the tendency of a child
to only see his point of
view and assume that
everyone else also has
his same point of view
Centration
– the tendency of the
child to only focus on
one thing or event and
exclude other aspects
Lack of Conservation
– the inability to realize
that some things remain
unchanged despite
looking different
 Irreversibility
– Pre-operational
children still have the
inability to reverse their
thinking.

3+2=5
but not
5-3=2
Animism
– the tendency of
the child to
attribute human
like traits to
inanimate objects.
Realism
– believing that
psychological
events, such as
dreams, are real
Transductive reasoning
– reasoning that is
neither inductive nor
deductive, reasoning
that appears to be from
particular to particular.
3. Concrete Operational
Stage (7 to 11 years).
 Decentering
– the ability of the child to perceive the
different features of objects and
situations
Reversibility
8 + 5 = 13,
– the ability
therefore, of the child
5+8 = 13
to follow
that certain
operations
can be done
in reverse.
Conservation
– the ability to know
that certain
properties of objects
like number, mass,
volume or area do
not change even if
there is a change in
appearance.
 Seriation

– the ability to
arrange things in a
series based on one
dimension such as
weight, volume, size,
etc.
 Hypothetical Reasoning

– ability to come up
with different
hypothesis about a
problem and weigh
data to make
judgement.
 Analogical reasoning

– ability to perceive the relationship in

one instance and use that relationship
to narrow down possible answers in
similar problems.
Analogical reasoning
 Deductive reasoning

– ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a

particular situation.
 VYGOTSKY’S
SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
 About the Theory
• Vygotsky suggested that children’s cognitive
development is fostered by interactions with people
who are more capable or advanced in
their thinking –teachers and parents.
• He focused on the connections between people and
the sociocultural context in which they act and
interact in shared experiences.
• According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that
develop from a culture, such as speech and writing,
to mediate their social environments.
 3 Major Themes
• Social Interaction
• The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
• Zone of Proximal Development-Teaching in the
Magic Middle
 Social Interaction
• Vygotsky felt social learning anticipates
development. He states: “Every function in the
child’s cultural development appears twice: first,
on the social level, and later, on the individual
level; first, between people (interpsychological)
and then inside the child (intrapsychological).”
• He believes that young children are curious and
actively involved in their own learning and the
discovery and development of new
understandings.
 The More Knowledgeable Other
(MKO)
• MKO refers to someone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than
the learner, with respect to a particular task,
process, or concept.
• For example: Teachers, Other adults,
Advanced students, sometimes even
computers.
• Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children
may be the individuals with more knowledge or
experience.
 Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD)
• What the learner already knows (do not teach; too boring)
• What the learner is not yet ready or able to learn (do not
teach; too difficult)
• ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT – what the
learner could understand with guidance (do teach; exciting,
challenging)
• Teaching in the Magic Middle –ZPD is the teaching
space between the boring and the impossible. It is here that
scaffolding from the teacher or a peer can support
learning.
 Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD)

• An example would be reading a book with a child.

– They are reading the words of the book out loud to you as
you follow along.
– They come across a word that in unfamiliar to them and
ask for help.
– Instead of directly telling them the word, show them
pictures of ask them questions about what they just read.
– They will figure the word out on their own and come to
understand what the word means on their own.
– They will later learn to do it themselves first before asking
for help.
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
What is Moral Development?
• Moral development involves thoughts,
feelings and behaviors regarding standards
of right and wrong.
• Moral development consists of
intrapersonal and interpersonal
dimensions.
Kohlberg's Moral Ladder
I. Post conventional
II. Conventional
III. Pre-conventional
• Ideally people should progress through
the 3 stages as part of normal
development
THE HEINZ
DILEMMA
Scenario 1

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was
one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a from of a radium
that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was
expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug
cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a
small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone
he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000
which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and
asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I
discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.”. So Heinz got
desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife.

Should the husband have done that? Why or why not?

Scenario 2

Heinz broke into the laboratory and stole the drug. The
next day, the newspaper reported the break-in and theft.
Brown, a police officer and a friend of Heinz remembered
seeing Heinz last evening, behaving suspiciously near the
laboratory. Later that night, he saw Heinz running away
from the laboratory.

Should Brown report what he saw?

Why or why not?
Scenario 3
Officer Brown reported what he saw.
Heinz was arrested and brought to court.
If convicted, he faces up to two years’ jail.
Heinz was found guilty.

Should the judge sentence Heinz to

prison? Why or why not?
 Levels of Moral Development

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality

• Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation /
Individual obeys rules in order to avoid
punishment.

• Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation /

Individual conforms to society’s rules
order to receive rewards.
Summary of Stage 1:

The concern is for self – “Will I get into trouble for doing
(or not doing) it?”. Good behavior is associated with
avoiding punishment.

Possible Stage 1 responses to Heinz Dilemma:

• Heinz should not steal the drug because he might be

caught and sent to jail.

• Heinz should steal the drug because if he doesn’t then his

wife might scold him.
Summary of Stage 2:

The concern is “What’s in it for me?”. Still egocentric in

outlook but with a growing ability to see things from
another person’s perspective. Action is judged right if it
helps in satisfying one’s needs or involves a fair exchange.

Possible Stage 2 responses to Heinz Dilemma:

• It is right for Heinz to steal the drug because it can cure his wife and
then she can cook for him.

• The doctor scientist had spent lots of money and many years of his life
to develop the cure so it’s not fair to him if Heinz stole the drug.
 Levels of Moral Development
Level 2: Conventional Morality

• Stage 3: Good Boy – Nice Girl Orientation /

Individual behaves morally in order to gain
approval from other people.

• Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation /

Conformity to authority to avoid censure and guilt.
Summary of Stage 3:

The concern is “What will people think of me?”

and the desire is for group approval. Right action
is one that would please or impress others. This
often involves self-sacrifice but it provides the
psychological pleasure of ‘approval of others’.
Actions are also judged in relation to their
intention.
Possible Stage 3 responses to Heinz Dilemma:
• Yes, Heinz should steal the drug. He probably will go to jail for a short time for
stealing but his in-laws will think he is a good husband.
• Brown, the police officer should report that he saw Heinz behaving suspiciously and
running away from the laboratory because his boss would be pleased.
Summary of Stage 4:

The concern now goes beyond one’s immediate

group(s) to the larger society … to the maintenance of
law and order. One’s obligation to the law overrides
one’s obligations of loyalty to one’s family, friends
and groups. To put it simply, no one or group is
above the law.
Possible Stage 4 responses to Heinz Dilemma:
• As her husband, Heinz has a duty to save his wife’s life so he should steal the drug. But it’s
wrong to steal, so Heinz should be prepared to accept the penalty for breaking the law.
• The judge should sentence Heinz to jail. Stealing is against the law! He should not make
exceptions even though Heinz’ wife is dying. If the judge does not sentence Heinz to jail then
others may think it’s right to steal and there will be chaos in the society.
 Levels of Moral Development
Level 3: Post-conventional Morality

• Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation /

Individual is concerned with individual rights and
democratically decided laws.

• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation /

Individual is entirely guided by his or her own
conscience.
Summary of Stage 5:
The concern is social utility or public interest. While rules are needed to
maintain social order, they should not be blindly obeyed but should be set
up (even changed) by social contract for the greater good of society. Right
action is one that protects the rights of the individual according to rules
agreed upon by the whole society.
Possible Stage 5 responses to Heinz Dilemma:
• Heinz should steal the drug because everyone has the right to life
regardless of the law against stealing. Should Heinz be caught and
prosecuted for stealing then the law (against stealing) needs to be
reinterpreted because a person’s life is at stake.
• The doctor scientist’s decision is despicable (bad or unpleasant) but his
right to fair compensation (for his discovery) must be maintained.
Therefore, Heinz should not steal the drug.
Summary of Stage 6:
The concern is for moral principles … an action is judged
right if it is consistent with self-chosen ethical principles.
These principles are not concrete moral rules but are
universal principles of justice, reciprocity, equality, and
human dignity.

Possible Stage 6 response to Heinz Dilemma:

• Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife because preserving
human life is a higher moral obligation than preserving property.
Urie
Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner
(April 29, 1917 – September 25,
2005)
was a Russian American
psychologist, known for
developing his Ecological
Systems Theory, and as a co-
founder of the Head Start
program in the United States
for disadvantaged pre-school
children. 
Background
Ecological Systems Theory
 The varied systems of the environment and the
interrelationships among the systems shape a
child's development.
 Both the environment and biology influence
the child's development.
 The environment affects the child and the
child influences the environment.
Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s Biological Model:
Structure of Environment
 The Microsystem
 The Mesosystem
 The Exosystem
 The Macrosystem
 The Chronosystem
The Microsystem
 The layer nearest to the child
 Includes structures such as one’s family, peers,
school, neighborhood & others whom the
individual has regular interaction and direct
contact with.
The Microsystem
 The microsystem is the system in which an
individual encounters the most social interactions.
The individual is not simply observing or having
things happen to them, but helping to create and
construct the experiences they have.
The Microsystem
Mesosystem
 Serves as the connection between
the structures of the child’s
microsystem
The Exosystem
 Refers to the bigger social system in which the
child does not function directly.
 Includes the city government, the workplace &
the mass media
 The structure in this layer may influence the
child’s development by somehow affecting some
structure in the child’s microsystem.
The Exosystem
The Macrosystem
 influenced greatly by the culture and society in
which a person lives.
 The belief systems and ideology of the
individual's culture influence the person directly,
however, the individual does not necessarily have
as much freedom in determining his or her
surroundings.
 Some examples of these influences could include
political or religious norms of the culture.
The Macrosystem
 Includes the cultural
values, customs and
laws
 In other words, it
involves broader
cultural values, laws
and governmental
resources
The Chronosystem
 The chronosystem reflects the cumulative
experiences a person has over the course of their
lifetime. These experiences include environmental
events, as well as major transitions in life. Some
notable transitions include divorce, marriage or
the birth of a baby. These transitions are major
experiences in an individual's lifetime.
 Implications for Education
 Primary relationship must be intended
to last a lifetime
 Teachers need to work to support
the primary child-adult relationship
 Schools should create an
environment that welcomes and
nurtures families
 Education should foster societal
attitudes that value all work done
on behalf of children
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
LEARNERS AT VARIOUS
STAGES
• Prenatal Period
• Infancy And Toddlerhood
• Early Childhood
• Middle Childhood
• Late Childhood
• Adolescence
Prenatal Period of Human
Development
The Stages of Pre-natal
Development
The Stages of Prenatal Development

• Prenatal development is divided

into three (3) periods:
1) Germinal Period
2) Embryonic Period
3) Fetal Period
 Germinal Period
• The 1st 2 weeks after conception
• includes the creation of the zygote, continued
cell division and the attachment of the zygote
to the uterine wall.
Germinal Period
 Germinal Period
• The blastocyst (the inner layer of cells
that develops during the germinal period)
develops into an embryo
• The trophoblast (the outer layer) later
provides nutrition and support for the
embryo
 Embryonic Period
• 2 weeks after conception
• The ff. development takes place: cell
differentiation intensifies, life support
systems for the embryo develops and
organs appear.
Embryonic Period
 Embryonic Period
• The embryo’s endoderm, develops into
the digestive and respiratory systems
 Embryonic Period
• The outer layer is divided into 2 parts –
ectoderm and mesoderm
• Ectoderm – becomes the nervous
system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears,
nose) and skin parts (nails, hair).
 Embryonic Period
• The outer layer is divided into 2 parts –
ectoderm and mesoderm
• Mesoderm – the middle layer which
becomes the circulatory, skeletal,
muscular, excretory and reproductive
systems.
Organogenesis
• The process of organ formation during
the first two months of prenatal
development
The Support Systems of the Embryo
 Fetal Period
• 2 – 7 months after conception
Fetal Period
Fetal Period
 N D AL
A AT
G Y E N
LO PR NT
O
T T O E
A P M
E R DS O
T R EL
Z A E V
HA D
Teratology – the field that
investigates the causes of
congenital defects
1. PRESCRIPTION AND
NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS
Examples:
o Antibiotics
o Diet pills
o Aspirin
o Coffee
1. PRESCRIPTION AND
NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS
Thalidomide Tragedy in 1961
1. PRESCRIPTION AND
NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS
Cocaine exposure during prenatal
development is associated with low birth
weight, length and head circumference,
impaired motor development, impaired
information processing and poor
attention skills.
2. PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

used to alter states of consciousness,

modify perceptions, and change moods.
include nicotine, caffeine, alcohol and
illegal drugs such as marijuana, cocaine
and heroin
FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME
3. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
Include radiation in jobsites and X-rays,
environmental pollutants, toxic wastes
and prolonged exposure to heat in
saunas and bath tubs
4. OTHER MATERNAL FACTORS
Rubella – can result to mental retardation,
blindness, deafness, and heart problems and
even death
Syphilis – damages organs after they have
formed, include eye lesions which can cause
blindness and skin lesions. When syphilis is
present at birth, problems in the CNS and
gastrointestinal tract develop.
4. OTHER MATERNAL FACTORS
Herpes infection
Stress during pregnancy
Maternal malnutrition
Folic acid deficiency – may lead to “spina
bifida”
Maternal age (adolescence and 30 or older)
5. PATERNAL FACTORS

father’s exposure to lead, radiation,

certain pesticides and petrochemicals
may cause abnormalities in his sperm
that lead to miscarriage or diseases such
as childhood cancer
Infancy &
Toddlerhood
Physical Development
• Newborns depend on others for basic physical needs.
They must be fed, cleaned, and kept safe and
comfortable until they develop the ability to do these
things for themselves. At the same time, however,
newborns have an amazing set of physical abilities
and potentials right from the beginning.
Physical Development
• Self-Regulation.
• After birth, the infant must develop the capacity to engage in
self-regulation. At first, the challenge is to regulate bodily
functions, such as temperature control, sleeping, eating, and
eliminating. Infants are not born with regular patterns of
sleeping, eating, and eliminating. With maturation of the
central nervous system in the first 3 months, and with lots of
help from parents or other caregivers, the infant’s rhythms of
sleeping, eating, and eliminating become much more regular.
Physical Development
• Sensory Abilities. Full-term infants are born with a functioning
sensory system—the senses of hearing, sight, taste, smell, touch,
and sensitivity to pain—and these abilities continue to develop
rapidly in the first few months. Indeed, in the early months the
sensory system seems to function at a higher level than the motor
system, which allows movement. The sensory system allows
infants, from the time of birth, to participate in and adapt to their
environments. A lot of their learning happens through listening and
watching. The sensory system is an interconnected system, with
various sensory abilities working together to give the infant
multiple sources of information about the world.
Physical Development
• Reflexes. Although dependent on others, newborns are
equipped from the start with tools for survival that are
involuntary responses to simple stimuli, called reflexes.
Reflexes aid the infant in adapting to the environment outside
the womb. Newborns have two critical reflexes:
• Rooting reflex. When infants’ cheeks or the corners of their
mouths are gently stroked with a finger, they will turn their
head in the direction of the touch and open their mouths in an
attempt to suck the finger. This reflex aids in feeding, because
it guides the infants to the nipple.
Physical Development
• Reflexes. Although dependent on others, newborns are
equipped from the start with tools for survival that are
involuntary responses to simple stimuli, called reflexes.
Reflexes aid the infant in adapting to the environment outside
the womb. Newborns have two critical reflexes:
• Sucking reflex. When a nipple or some other suckable object is
presented to the infant, the infant sucks it. This reflex is
another important tool for feeding.
Infant Reflexes

Reflex Description Visible at:

The infant instinctively sucks First 2 to 4 months

any object of appropriate size
that is presented to it.
Sucking
Infant Reflexes

Reflex Description Visible at:

The head turns in the direction First 3 months
of a stimulus when the cheek is
touched. The infant's mouth
Rooting opens in an attempt to suck.
Infant Reflexes

Reflex Description Visible at:

The arms thrust outward First 5 months
when the infant is released
Moro/ in midair, as if attempting
Startle to regain support.
Infant Reflexes

Reflex Description Visible at:

When placed face down in First 3 months
water, the infant makes
paddling, swim like motions.
Swimming
Infant Reflexes

Reflex Description Visible at:

When the infant is held in an First 3 months
upright position with the
feet placed on a firm
Stepping surface, the infant moves
the feet in a walking motion.
Infant Reflexes

Reflex Description Visible at:

The eyes blink in response Lifetime
to light, air, and other
stimuli.
Blinking
Infant Reflexes

Reflex Description Visible at:

The infant grasps objects First 4 months
placed in its hand.

Grasping
Infant Reflexes

Reflex Description Visible at:

The toes spread when the First year
soles of the feet are
stroked.
Babinski
Physical Development
• Motor Skills. The infant gradually advances from reflex functioning
to motor functioning. The development of motor skills—the ability
to move and manipulate—occurs in a more or less orderly, logical
sequence. It begins with simple actions such as lifting the chin and
progresses to more complex acts such as walking, running, and
throwing. Infants usually crawl before they walk.
Physical Development
The Growing Brain. Like the brains of other primates, human brains
contain neurons, or nerve cells that store and transmit information.
Between these neurons are synapses, or neural connections,
through which information is transported. During the prenatal
period, the brain overproduces neurons in massive numbers. In fact,
the human newborn has more synapses than the human adult.
During infancy and toddlerhood, each neuron joins with thousands
of other neurons to form a colossal number of synapses or
connections. The period of overproduction of synapses, or
blooming, is followed by a period of pruning, or reduction, of the
synapses to improve the efficiency of brain functioning. It is through
this process of creating elaborate communication systems between
the connecting neurons that more and more complex skills and
abilities become possible. Thus, during these early years of life,
children are capable of rapid new learning.
Cognitive Development
• As the brain develops, so does its ability to process
and store information and to solve problems. These
abilities are known as cognition. When we talk about
how fast a child is learning, we are talking about
cognitive development. Researchers now describe
the infant as “wired to learn,” and agree that infants
have an intrinsic drive to learn and to be in
interaction with their environments. A central
element of cognition is language, which facilitates
both thinking and communicating.
Cognitive Development
• Language Development
1) Cooing, which comprises largely vowels sounds
2) Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as
vowel sounds
3) One-word utterances; these utterances are limited
in both the vowels and consonants they utilize
4) Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5) Basic adult sentence structure (present by about 4
years of age)
Socioemotional Development
• Infants and toddlers face vital developmental
tasks in the emotional arena as well as in the
social arena. Development during these early
ages may set the stage for socioemotional
development during all other developmental
ages.
Socioemotional Development
• The Role of Play
• Historically, play was thought to be
insignificant to development, especially for
infants and toddlers. However, we now know
that play allows infants and toddlers to
enhance motor, cognitive, emotional, and
social development. Because of their
differences in development in all areas, infants
and toddlers play in different ways.
 Types of Play in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Types of Infant Play
Vocal play Playful vocalizing with grunts, squeals, trills, vowels, etc. to experiment
with
sound and have fun with it
Interactive play Initiating interactions with caregivers (at about 4–5 months), by smiling
and
vocalizing, to communicate and make connection
Exploratory play with Exploring objects with eyes, mouth, and hands to learn about their
objects shape,
color, texture, movement, and sounds and to experience pleasure

Baby games Participating in parent-initiated ritualized, repetitive games, such as

peek-a-boo, that contain humor, suspense, and excitement and build an
emotional bond
 
 Types of Play in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Types of Toddler Play

Functional play Engaging in simple, repetitive motor
movements

Constructive play Creating and constructing objects

Make-believe play Acting out everyday functions and tasks and

playing with an imaginary friend
Early Childhood
Early Childhood
• Physical Characteristics
• Extremely active; have good control over their bodies; enjoy
activity for itself
• Have inclination toward “bursts” of activity, so they need
frequent rest periods as they often don’t know when to slow
down.
• With large muscles that are more developed than those that
control fingers and hands and are therefore clumsy especially
in skills like tying shoelaces and buttoning.
• Have difficulty focusing their eyes on small objects, so their
eye-hand coordination is not yet perfect.
Early Childhood
• Social Characteristics
• Most have one or two best friends; but this friendship may
change rapidly, as they all tend to be willing and able to play
with most children in their class; friendships tend to be the
same sex.
• Play groups tend to be small and too highly organized.
• Younger children may play beside others; older ones with
others.
• Play patterns vary according to gender, social class, or age.
Early Childhood
• Emotional Characteristics
• Tend to express their emotions freely and openly;
anger outbursts are frequent.
• Jealousy among classmates is likely to be common
because they seek attention and affection of
teachers.
Early Childhood
• Cognitive Characteristics
• Quite skilful with languages; most like to talk
especially in front of groups.
• May stick to own rules in use of language.
• Need more opportunities involving interaction,
interest, opportunities, urging, limits, admiration,
signs of affection
Early Childhood
• Moral Characteristics
• Concept of morality emerges as a result of
interactions with adults and peers.
• Show concern about deviations from the way objects
should be and how people should be
Middle Childhood
Middle Childhood
• Physical Characteristics
• Still extremely active, hence, when restricted, their
energy is released through nervous habits.
• Get fatigued easily because of physical and mental
exertion.
• With superior large-muscle control than fine motor
coordination.
• Many have difficulty focusing on small prints or
objects.
Middle Childhood
• Social Characteristics
• Somewhat more selective in choosing friends and are
likely to have a more or less permanent friend.
• Like organized games in small groups, but may tend
to be overly concerned with rules or get carried away
by team spirit.
• Quarrels are still frequent although words are more
often used than physical aggression.
Middle Childhood
• Emotional Characteristics
• Sensitive to criticism and ridicule and may have
difficulty in adjusting to failure.
• Most eager to please the teacher
• Beginning to become more sensitive to the feelings
of others.
Middle Childhood
• Cognitive Characteristics
• Are generally eager to learn; they have built in
motivation for this.
• Have much more facility in speech than writing.
• Can make generalization but based only on concrete
experiences.
Middle Childhood
• Moral Characteristics
• Have the tendency to tell on their classmates, maybe
due to jealousy or malice or simply to get attention.
Late Childhood
Late Childhood
• Physical Characteristics
• Growth spurt occurs in most girls and starts in early
maturing boys. On the average girls between 10 and
14 are taller and heavier than boys of the same age.
• Concern and curiosity about sex are prevalent
especially because these involve drastic biological
adjustments.
• Fine motor coordination is quite good; manipulation
of small objects is easy and enjoyable.
Late Childhood
•Social Characteristics
• Peer groups become powerful and begin to
replace adults as basis of behaviour standards
and recognition of achievement.
• Increase development of interpersonal
reasoning that leads to greater understanding
of others’ feelings.
Late Childhood
•Emotional Characteristics
• Delinquent behaviour may be manifested,
caused more by disruptive family relationships,
social rejection, and school failure.
• Some may show behaviour disorder
(hyperactivity, bed wetting, antisocial
behaviour, disorder anxiety, withdrawal)
Late Childhood
•Cognitive Characteristics
• Sex differences in specific abilities decrease in
number and magnitude.
• Differences in cognitive styles become
apparent.
• May be able to deal with abstraction but may
still need to generalize from concrete
experience.
Late Childhood
•Moral Characteristics
• Emotions concerning pride
and guilt become clearly
governed by personal
responsibility
• Ideas about justice
• Can now follow advance
internalized standards
Adolescence
Adolescence
• Physical Characteristics
• Physical growth becomes more accelerated although
most girls completed their growth spurt at the
beginning of this period earlier than boys.
• Pubertal development is evident.
• Adolescent awkwardness is likely; self-consciousness
and great concern about appearance are manifested.
• Generally have good health but may show poor
sleeping habits and diet.
Adolescence
• Social Characteristics
• Peer group becomes the general
source of behaviour; desire for
greater independence shown.
• Great desire to conform is at its
peak, whether in appearance, dress
or behaviour.
• Great concern about what others
think of them.
Adolescence
• Emotional Characteristics
• Some but not all have feelings of confusion, anxiety,
depression, extreme mood swings and low level of
self-confidence, often attributed to the rapid changes
in height, weight, and body proportions, hormone
production, identity formation, increased academic
responsibility and the development of formal
operational reasoning.
Adolescence
• Cognitive Characteristics
• Have increased ability to engage in mental
manipulations and test hypotheses; thinking
becomes more abstract, liberal and knowledgeable
Adolescence
•Moral Characteristics
• Have greater willingness to obey rules out of
respect to authority or of a desire to impress
others; have a greater concept of individual
rights.
• Ideas about what ought to be done when
needs and desires of people are on conflict
also change toward increasingly just and fair
solutions to moral problems.