GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING I
(SOIL MECHANICS)
SOIL MECHANICS – defined as the branch of engineering
science which enables an engineer to know theoretically or
experimentally the behavior of soil under the action of ;
1. Loads ( static or dynamic )
2. Gravitational Forces
3. Water
4. Temperature

▣ Simply speaking it is the knowledge of engineering

science, which deals with properties, behavior and
performance of soil as a construction material or
foundation support.
Why we study Soil Mechanics?

1. Soil holds/support the foundation of structure

2. Embankments
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
2. Subgrade highway pavement, land
reclamation, Earthen dam.
3. SLOPES AND LANDSLIDES
4. EARTH RETAINING STRUCUTRES
5. GEOTEXTILES
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
- is the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals as
well as wood and artificial materials through
contact with the Earth’s atmosphere, biota and
waters, the materials left over after the rock breaks
down combined with organic material creates
Soil.

CLASSIFICATON OF WEATHERING PROCESS

1. Physical Weathering
2. Chemical Weathering
Physical Weathering – also known as mechanical
weathering, is class of processes that causes the
disintegration of rocks without chemical change. The
primary process in physical weathering is abrasion.

Chemical Weathering – changes the composition of

rocks, often transforming them when water interacts
with minerals to create various chemical reactions. It is
a gradual process as the mineralogy of the rock
adjusts to the near surface environment. New or
secondary mineral develops from the original mineral
of rocks.
SOIL – defined as the material, by means of which and
upon which engineers build their structures. It includes
entire thickness of the earth’s crust which is accessible and
feasible for practical utilization as foundation support or
construction material. It is composed of loosely bound
mineral particles of various sizes, shapes formed due to
weathering of rocks.
Geological Consideration
▣ The history of formation of soil deposit, greatly

influence its properties and behavior. The properties of

soil depends on the process through which the soil
deposits had been developed. Types of soil is
determined based on its geological agents.
Types of Soil
1. Residual Soil – type of soil found on nearly flat
rock surfaces were the weathering action has
produced a soil with a little or no tendency to
move. Residual soil also occurs when the rate of
weathering is higher than the rate of removal.
2. Transported Soil
- Glacial Soil – this type of soil is developed,
transported and deposited by the actions of glaciers.
These deposits consists of rock fragments, boulders,
grades, sand, silt and clay in various proportions.
-Alluvial Soil – soil transported and deposited by
water, as flowing water looses velocity it tends to
deposit some of particles that is carrying in
suspension or by rolling, sliding or skipping along the
riverbed. Coarser or heavier particles are dropped
first. Hence on the higher reaches of a river, gravel
and sand are found. However on the lower parts, silt
and clay dominates where the flow velocity is almost
zero or very small.
- Aeolian Soil – soil transported by the geological agent
wind and subsequently deposited. There are two
types of Aeolian soil namely Dune sand and Loess.
TYPES OF SOIL
The types of soil based on engineering consideration depend
on the particle size. Since the engineering properties of soil
markedly change with the change of particle size different
names are assigned to particular ranges of particle sizes.
Based on MIT soil types are classified as follows.
1. CLAY – less than 0.002 mm. composed of fine particles,
clay shows high particle attraction thus exhibiting
sufficient cohesion. It has high dry strength, low erosion,
low permeability, good workability under moist
condition can be readily compacted. Also susceptible to
shrinkage and swelling. Clay soils commonly have
brown color.
2. SILT – composed of very fine particles ranging in size
between 0.002 mm and 0.06 mm. It has high capillarity to
plasticity and very low dry strength. It has properties of
both clay and sand, it shows slight cohesion and also
friction. It is brown in color.
3. SAND – it consists of particles ranging in size from 0.06
mm to 2 mm. It is grey in color, this particle maybe
angular to rounded in shape. It shows no plasticity, high
strength in a confined state and has considerable frictional
resistance. It has high permeability and low capillarity.
Sand is the most wanted construction material. Abundant
quantities of sand are available in desserts and riverbeds.
4. GRAVELS – consists of particle varying in size
from 2mm. to 60mm. They form a good
foundation material. They show high frictional
resistance. The frictional resistance depends upon
the particle size and shapes. The gravels produced
by crushing rocks are angular in shape, while
those taken from river beds are sub-rounded to
rounded. They show high permeability. When
sand and silt are mixed with gravels their bearing
capacity is further increased but permeability may
be decreased.
5. COBBLES and BOULDERS – particles larger
than gravels are commonly known as cobbles and
boulders. They range in size from 60 mm. to
200mm. The materials larger than 200mm. is
designated as boulders.
Nomenclature ASTM AASHTO
( Soil Type )
Gravel 75 mm to 4.75 mm Larger than 2 mm.
( 3 in. Sieve to No.4 Sieve )

Course Sand 4.75 mm. to 2 mm. 2mm. to 0.425 mm.

( No.4 to No.10 Sieve )
Medium Sand 2mm. to 0.425 mm. ----------------------------
( No. 10 to No. 40 Sieve )
Fine Sand 0.425 mm. to 0.075 mm. 0.425mm. to 0.075 mm.
(No. 40 to No. 200 Sieve )

Silt 0.075 mm. to 0.005 mm. 0.075 mm. to 0.002 mm.

( No. 200 to .005 mm.)
Clay Smaller than 0.005 mm. Smaller than 0.002 mm.

Colloids Smaller than 0.001 mm. Smaller than 0.001 mm.

Soil Phase and Condition
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND
DIVISION
γ (unit weight) =
γ (unit weight) =
 DENSITY AND UNIT WEIGHT OF WATER
Density of water, ρw = 1000 kg/m³
ρw = 1 g/cc.
Unit Weight of Water, γw = 9.81 kN/m³
Basic Formulas:
Unit Weight, γs = Gs γw ,
Weight of water, Ww = γw Vw
Weight of Substance, Ws = γs Vs = G γw Vs
Specific Gravity of Substance, Gs = γs / γw
Where: Gs = specific gravity
Relationships that can be made from the Phase
Diagram:
Total Weight of Soil, Wt = Ww + Ws
Volume of Voids, Vv = Va + Vw
Total Volume, Vt = Vv + Vs
Example: A sample soil has a total mass of 1.5 kg and
volume of 0.0012 m³. Find the density and unit
weight of the soil sample?
Given:
m = 1.5 kg.
Vt = 0.0012 m³
Soln:
ρm = m/v γ = w/v
= 1.5 kg./ 0.0012 m³ = 1.5kg(9.81m/s²)/
ρ = 1,250 kg/m³ 0.0012m³
γ = 12.26 KN/m³
An undisturbed soil sample Gs = 2.6 has a total volume
of 350 cc and weighs 505 gm. After oven drying for 24
hrs. it weighs 450 gm. Determine the following:
▣ 
▣Volume of water
▣Volume of voids
▣Volume of solids
▣Unit Weight (kN/m³)
▣Density ( kg/m³)
Example: A soil sample is to be molded into a spherical
sample, laboratory results shows that it Ww = 0.65 kg,
Ws = 0.94 kg. If the unit weight of soil is 14.75 kN/mᶟ,
determine the diameter of the spherical soil sample?
Given: Ww = 0.65 kg = 6.38 N
Ws = 0.94 kg = 9.22 N
γ = 14.75 kN/mᶟ
Required: Diameter
Solution:
γ = Wt/V V = 4/3 ( π rᶟ )
14.75 kN/mᶟ = 15.6 N/V 2r = d = 0.126 m
Vt = 0.00106 mᶟ d= 126 mm.
Void Ratio ( e ) – ratio between volume of voids to the volume of solids
of soil mass, defined by the formula;
e = Vv/Vs

Note: 0 < e < infinity

Porosity ( n ) – the ratio between the volumes of voids to the total
volume of soil mass, it is expressed by the formula;

n = Vv/ V
Note: 0 < n < 1
Relationship Between e and n.

e = n/(1-n )
n = e/( 1+ e )
Example: A soil sample has a total volume of 0.0015
m³, from the lab test volume of solids is measured as
0.00086 m³. Determine the void ratio of the sample?
Given:
Vt= 0.0015 m³
Vs = 0.00086 m³
Soln:
Vv =Vt -Vs Solve for e:
= 0.0015 – 0.00086 e = Vv/Vs
Vv= 0.00064 m³ e = 0.00064/0.00086
e = 0.744
Example: A soil sample has a total volume of 0.0015
m³, from the lab test, volume of soil is measured as
0.00086 m³. Determine the porosity of the sample?
Soln:
n = Vv/V
= ( 0.0015 – 0.00086 )/ 0.0015
n = 0.43
Check: ( Using e and n relationship )
e = 0.744
n = e / ( 1+e )
n = 0.744 / ( 1+ 0.744 ) n = 0.43
Water Content or Moisture Content, ( MC or ω)
It is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the
solid particles.

MC or ω = ( Ww/ Ws ) x 100 %

Degree of Saturation – the ratio of the volume of water to

the volume of voids
S = ( Vw/VV ) x 100%

Note: degree of saturation varies from S =0 for completely dry soil

and S = 100 % for fully saturated soil.
Example: A soil sample has a total mass of 0.975
kilograms, after oven drying it, its mass decreased by
0.438 kg. Determine the moisture content of the sample ?
Given:
Wt = 0.975 kg
Soln:
After oven drying, the weight of water is consumed so,
Ww is 0.438 kg, Wa = 0
Ww = 0.438 kg. Ws = 0.975 – 0.438
Ws = 0.537 kg.
ω = (Ww/Ws ) x 100%
= (0.438/0.537)x 100% ω = 81.56%
Example: A soil sample has a total volume of 0.0015
m³, from the lab test, volume of soil is measured as
0.00086 m³ and volume of air is 0.0000956. Determine
the degree of sat. the sample?
Given: Vt = 0.0015 m³
Vs = 0.00086 m³
Va = 0.0000956 m³
Soln:
S = Vw/ VV Vv= Va+Vw
Vw = 0.0015 – (0.00086+ 0.0000956) = (5.444x10ˉ⁴ + 9.56x10‾⁵)
Vw = 5.444x10-⁴ m³ = 6.4x10ˉ⁴ m³
S= (0.0005444/0.00064)x100%
S = 0.8506x 100%
S = 85.06%
 Relationship Between G, MC, S and e

Gs ω = Se

Unit Weight ( Bulk Unit Weight ) of Soil Mass,

γm = W/ V
γm = (Gs + Se ) γw/( 1 + e )
SINCE : GMc = Se

γm = (Gs+ Gω )γW /( 1 + e )
A soil sample after laboratory was found out to
have Gs = 2.6, e= 0.52 and ω = 0.225, Determine the
Unit Weight of the sample?
Given:
Gs = 2.6
e = 0.52
ω = 0.225
Soln:
γm = (Gs + Gsω) γw / 1+e
=( 2.6 + ( 2.6x0.225)) 9.81 / 1+0.52
γm = 20.56 kN/m³
Dry Unit Weight, (γd )
γd = Ws / V
γd = Gs γw/(1 + e)
Since : Ws = w/( 1 + ω )
γd = γm/( 1 + ω )

For dry soils, S = 0 and ω = 0

Saturated Unit Weight, (γsat )

γsat = ( Gs+e ) γw/( 1+e )

For saturated soil S = 1, Vv = Vw

Submerged or Buoyant Unit Weight, γb or γ’

γb or γ’ = γsat – γw
γb or γ’ = (G-1) γw/(1+e)

Critical Hydraulic Gradient – is the hydraulic gradient that brings soil mass to static liquefaction,
expressed by the formula;

Icr = γb / γw = (G-1)/( 1+e)

Example: A soil sample has the following laboratory
results Gs = 2.7, S = 47.30%, ω = 17%. Determine the unit
weight, dry unit weight and saturated unit weight and
buoyant unit weight?

Soln: Unit Weight (γ)

γm = (Gs + Se )γw/(1+e)
Gsω = Se
e = 2.7(0.17)/0.473
e =0.97
γm = (2.7+ 0.473(0.97))(9.81)/(1+0.97)
γm = 15.73 KN/m³
b. Dry Unit Weight
γd = Gsγw/ (1+e)
= 2.7 ( 9.81 )/ ( 1+ 0.97)
γd= 13.445 KN/m³

c. (S = 1 for fully saturated soil)

γsat = (Gs+e) γw/ (1+e )
= (2.7+ 0.97)(9.81)/ (1.97)
γsat = 18.275 KN/m³
d. Buoyant Unit Weight
γ’ = γsat – γw
= 18.275 – 9.81
γ’ = 8.465 kN/mᶟ
Other Formulas;
Volume of Voids, Vv = eV/(1+e )

Volume of Solids, Vs = V/ ( 1+e )

Volume of Water, Vw = VSe/ (1+e )

Weight of Water, Ww = γw V Se / (1 +e )

Weight of Solids, Ws = γw G V / (1 + e )

Weight of Soil, W = γw V ( G +Se ) / ( 1+ e )

Dry Unit Weight, γd = γm / ( 1 +MC )

Exercise:
1) A soil specimen has volume of 0.048m³ and a mass of 86.8 kg.
Given w = 14.8%, and Gs = 2.65.
a) Determine the Void ratio?
b) Determine the Porosity?
c) Determine the Dry Unit Weight?
d) Determine the Moist Unit Weight?
e) Determine the Degree of Saturation?
f) Determine the Saturated Unit Weight?
g) Determine the Buoyant Unit Weight?

2) A saturated soil sample has w = 42% and γd = 14.45 KN/m³

h) Determine the Void Ratio?

i) Determine the Porosity?

j) Determine the Specific gravity?
k) Determine the Saturated Unit Weight?
Compaction
the application of mechanical energy to soil so as to rearrange its
particles and reduce the void ratio. It is applied to improve the
properties of an existing soil or in the process of placing fill such as in
the construction of embankment, road bases, runways, earth dams, and
reinforced earth walls. Compaction is also used to prepare a level
surface during construction of buildings. There is usually no change in
the water content and in the size of the individual soil particles.

Objectives of Compaction
a) Increase soil shear strength and bearing capacity
b) Reduce subsequent settlement under working loads
c) Reduce soil permeability making it more difficult for water to flow
through
Advantage of Compaction
Existing soil at a construction site may not always be suitable
for supporting structures such as buildings, bridges,
highways and dams. For example, in granular soil deposits
the in-situ soil may be very loose and could not present a
large elastic settlement. In such a case, the soil needs to be
densified to increase its unit weight thus the shear strength.
Sometimes the top soil is undesirable and must be removed
and replaced with a better quality soil, on which structural
foundation can be built. The soil that is used as a fill needs to
be well compacted to sustain the desired structural load.
Soil run off of densified soil is increased, and it negates
erosion due to the compressed particles.
General Principles
If a small amount of water is added to a soil that is then subjected to compaction by a given
amount of energy, the soil will be compacted to a certain unit weight. Water behaves as
lubricant between soil particles, under compaction it helps rearrange the solid particles into a
denser state. The maximum dry unit weight is obtained at the optimum moisture content of soil.
Standard Laboratory Tests
1) Standard Proctor Test
2) Modified Proctor Test

Specifications
No. Item Standard Proctor Modified Proctor
1 Volume of Mold 0.944 x 10ˉ³ m³ 0.944 x 10ˉ³ m³
2 Mass of Hammer 2.5 kg 4.54 kg
3 Height of Droppped of Hammer 305 mm 457 mm
4 No. of Blows per Layer 25 25
5 No. of Layers of Compaction 3 5
6 Energy of Compaction 600 kN.m/m³ 2700 kN.m/m³
 
 
▣ 
Relative Density ( %) Description
0 - 20 Very Loose
20 – 40 Loose
40 - 60 Medium
60 - 80 Dense
80 - 100 Very Dense
Example Problems;
1) A granular soil was tested in the laboratory and found
to have maximum and minimum void ratios of 0.84 and
0.38, respectively. The specific gravity of solids is 2.65. A
natural soil deposit of the same sand has 9% moisture
content and its moist unit weight is 18.64 kN/m³.
Determine the relative density of the soil in the field?
2) For granular soil given, moist unit weight of 18.85
kN/m³, Dr = 65%, moisture content = 8% and Gs = 2.66,
if e min = 0.40. Determine;
a) Dry Unit Weight at loosest state?
b) emax?
1)A soil specimen has its weight of 1.6 g after oven
drying it weighed 1.4 g, its total volume is 0.98 cm³,
moisture content at its loosest state is 12% and moisture
content at its densest state - 12%? Determine its relative
density? If Gs = 2.58, determine e, emax and emin?

2) The laboratory test results of a sand are as follows: emax

= 0.90, emin = 0.45, and Gs = 2.67. What would be the dry
and moist unit weights of this sand when compacted at a
moisture content of 10% to a relative density of 65%?
3. A soil sample has a moist unit weight of 18.72
kN/mᶟ, ω = 15%, ωmin = 8%, ωmax = 21%, determine
the relative density of the soil? Describe the soil
based on the value of Dr?

4. A saturated soil has its unit weight of 20.56

kN/mᶟ, emax = 0.68, emin=0.37, Determine the relative
density of the soil? Describe the soil based on the
value of Dr?
ATTERBERG LIMITS
When a clayey soil is mixed with an excessive amount
of water, it may flow like semi-liquid. If the soil
gradually dried, it will behave like a plastic, semi-solid,
or solid material depending on its moisture content. The
moisture content, in percent at which the soil changes
from liquid to a plastic state is defined as the Liquid
limit ( LL) . Similarly, the moisture content in percent at
which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid
state and from a semisolid to solid state are defined as
plastic limit (PL) and shrinkage limit (SL) , respectively.
These limits are referred to as ATTERBERG LIMITS.
Soil Consistency – the term used to describe the degree of firmness of soil. ( soft, firm
and hard )
• Soil consistency is greatly affected by the moisture content of the soil.

• Increasing the amount of water in a soil may transform a soil in its solid state to

semisolid state, to plastic state and further water content increase into result to a
liquid state.

Solid Semi Solid Plastic State Semiliquid

State State State
Increase in moisture
content
Volume of soil-water
mixture

SL PL LL

Moisture Content
Liquid limit (LL) of soil is determined by the
Casagrande’s liquid device (ASTM Test Designation
D- 4318) and is defined as the moisture content at
which a groove closure of 12.7mm occurs at 25 blows.
Plastic Limit is defined as the moisture content at
which the soil crumbles when rolled into thread of
3.18 mm in diameter ( ASTM Test Designation D-
4318).
ShrinkageLimit is defined as the moisture content at
which the soil does not undergo any further change
in volume with loss of moisture ( ASTM Test
Designation D- 4318 )
Casagrande Device
SOIL INDICES
INDEX DEFINITION CORRELATION
Plasticity Index PI = LL – PL Soil strength,
compressibility and
compactibility
Liquidity Index LI = ( w – PL) / PI Compressibility and stress
rate
Shrinkage Index SI = PL – SL Shrinkage potential

Consistency Index CI =( LL – w)/ LL- PI

Soil Based on Liquidity Index

LI < 0 Semisolid State – high strength,
brittle fracture is expected.
0< LI < 1 Plastic State – intermediate strength,
soil deforms like plastic material
LI > 1 Liquid State – low strength, soil
deforms like viscous fluid
Description of Soil Based on Plasticity Index

PI Description
0 Nonplastic
1-5 Slightly Plastic
5-10 Low Plasticity
10-20 Medium Plasticity
20-40 High Plasticity
>40 Very high plasticity
1. The Atterberg Limits of a given soil are: LL =
68%o, PL = 37%, SL = 22% If the natural moisture
content of this soil at the site be 42 %,then
determine : (a) Plasticity index (b) Consistency
index (c) Liquidity index (d) Shrinkage Index

2. Determine the liquidity index of the result of a

Cassagrande Experiment below; (PL = 23%, MC =
(35%)
No. of 48 38 29 20 14
Blows
Water 32.1 35.9 40.7 46.1 52.8
Content
(%)