DATA MINING

Reference Book:
Jiawei Han and Micheline Kamber
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Why Data Mining?
The Evolution of Database System Technology
 Evolution of Database Technology

• 1960s:
• Data collection, database creation, IMS and network DBMS

• 1970s:
• Relational data model, relational DBMS implementation

• 1980s:
• RDBMS, advanced data models (extended-relational, OO, deductive, etc.)
• Application-oriented DBMS (spatial, scientific, engineering, etc.)

• 1990s:
• Data mining, data warehousing, multimedia databases, and Web databases

• 2000s
• Stream data management and mining
• Data mining and its applications
• Web technology (XML, data integration) and global information systems
We are data rich but information
poor
What is Data Mining?
 What Is Data Mining?

• Data mining (knowledge discovery from data)

• Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously unknown

and potentially useful) patterns or knowledge from huge amount of

data
• Data mining: a misnomer?

• Alternative names
• Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge
extraction, data/pattern analysis, data archeology, data dredging,
information harvesting, business intelligence, etc.
• Watch out: Is everything “data mining”?
• Simple search and query processing
• (Deductive) expert systems
Data mining-Searching for knowledge
(interesting patterns) in your data
Data mining as a step in the process of
knowledge discovery
Architecture of a typical data mining
system
Data Mining and Business Intelligence

Increasing potential
to support
business decisions End User
Decision
Making

Data Presentation Business

Analyst
Visualization Techniques
Data Mining Data
Information Discovery Analyst

Data Exploration
Statistical Summary, Querying, and Reporting

Data Preprocessing/Integration, Data Warehouses

DBA
Data Sources
Paper, Files, Web documents, Scientific experiments, Database Systems
Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines

Database
Technology Statistics

Machine Visualization
Data Mining
Learning

Pattern
Recognition Other
Algorithm Disciplines
Why Not Traditional Data Analysis?
• Tremendous amount of data
• Algorithms must be highly scalable to handle such as tera-bytes of
data
• High-dimensionality of data
• Micro-array may have tens of thousands of dimensions
• High complexity of data
• Data streams and sensor data
• Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data
• Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
• Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
• Spatial, spatiotemporal, multimedia, text and Web data
• Software programs, scientific simulations
• New and sophisticated applications
 16

Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

• Data to be mined
• Relational, data warehouse, transactional, stream, object-oriented/relational,
active, spatial, time-series, text, multi-media, heterogeneous, legacy, WWW
• Knowledge to be mined
• Characterization, discrimination, association, classification, clustering,
trend/deviation, outlier analysis, etc.
• Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels
• Techniques utilized
• Database-oriented, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning, statistics,
visualization, etc.
• Applications adapted
• Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data mining, stock
market analysis, text mining, Web mining, etc.
Data Mining: Classification Schemes

• General functionality
• Descriptive data mining

• Predictive data mining

• Different views lead to different classifications

• Data view: Kinds of data to be mined

• Knowledge view: Kinds of knowledge to be discovered

• Method view: Kinds of techniques utilized

• Application view: Kinds of applications adapted

Data Mining: On What Kinds of Data?

• Database-oriented data sets and applications

• Relational database, data warehouse, transactional database

• Advanced data sets and advanced applications

• Data streams and sensor data

• Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data (incl. bio-sequences)

• Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data

• Object-relational databases

• Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases

• Spatial data and spatiotemporal data

• Multimedia database

• Text databases

• The World-Wide Web

Data Mining Functionalities

• Multidimensional concept description: Characterization and

discrimination
• Generalize, summarize, and contrast data characteristics, e.g., dry
vs. wet regions
• Frequent patterns, association, correlation vs. causality
• Diaper  Beer [0.5%, 75%] (Correlation or causality?)
• Classification and prediction
• Construct models (functions) that describe and distinguish classes
or concepts for future prediction
• E.g., classify countries based on (climate), or classify cars based
on (gas mileage)
• Predict some unknown or missing numerical values
 20

Data Mining Functionalities (2)

• Cluster analysis
• Class label is unknown: Group data to form new classes, e.g., cluster
houses to find distribution patterns
• Maximizing intra-class similarity & minimizing interclass similarity
• Outlier analysis
• Outlier: Data object that does not comply with the general behavior of
the data
• Noise or exception? Useful in fraud detection, rare events analysis
• Trend and evolution analysis
• Trend and deviation: e.g., regression analysis
• Sequential pattern mining: e.g., digital camera  large SD memory
• Periodicity analysis
• Similarity-based analysis
• Other pattern-directed or statistical analyses
Data Mining task
• Data mining involves six common classes of tasks:
• Anomaly detection (Outlier/change/deviation detection) –
The identification of unusual data records, that might be
interesting or data errors that require further investigation.
• Association rule learning (Dependency modeling) –
Searches for relationships between variables.
• Clustering – is the task of discovering groups and structures in
the data that are in some way or another "similar", without
using known structures in the data.
• Classification – is the task of generalizing known structure to
apply to new data.
• Regression – attempts to find a function which models the
data with the least error.
• Summarization – providing a more compact representation of
the data set, including visualization and report generation.
Problems
• Classification
• Clustering
• Regression
• Anomaly detection
• Association rules
• Reinforcement learning
• Structured prediction
• Feature learning
• Online learning
• Semi-supervised learning
• Grammar induction
Supervised learning
• (classification • regression)
• Decision trees
• Ensembles (Bagging, Boosting, Random forest)
• k-NN
• Linear regression
• Naive Bayes
• Neural networks
• Logistic regression
• Perceptron
• Support vector machine (SVM)
Clustering

• BIRCH
• Hierarchical
• k-means
• Expectation-maximization (EM)
• DBSCAN OPTICS
• Mean-shift
Dimensionality reduction
• Factor analysis
• CCA
• ICA
• LDA
• NMF
• PCA
• t-SNE
• Structured prediction
• Graphical models (Bayes Net, CRF, HMM)
• Anomaly detection
• k-NN
• Local outlier factor
• Neural nets
• Autoencoder
• Deep learning
• Multilayer perceptron
• RNN
• Restricted Boltzmann machine
• SOM
• Theory
• Bias-variance dilemma
• Computational learning theory
• Empirical risk minimization
• PAC learning
• Statistical learning
• VC theory
Thank you very much for your attention
 Data Preprocessing

• Why preprocess the data?

• Descriptive data summarization

• Data cleaning

• Data integration and transformation

• Data reduction

• Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

• Summary
Why Data Preprocessing?
• Data in the real world is dirty
• incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of
interest, or containing only aggregate data
• e.g., occupation=“ ”
• noisy: containing errors or outliers
• e.g., Salary=“-10”
• inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names
• e.g., Age=“42” Birthday=“03/07/1997”
• e.g., Was rating “1,2,3”, now rating “A, B, C”
• e.g., discrepancy between duplicate records
Why Is Data Dirty?
• Incomplete data may come from
• “Not applicable” data value when collected
• Different considerations between the time when the data was
collected and when it is analyzed.
• Human/hardware/software problems
• Noisy data (incorrect values) may come from
• Faulty data collection instruments
• Human or computer error at data entry
• Errors in data transmission
• Inconsistent data may come from
• Different data sources
• Functional dependency violation (e.g., modify some linked data)
• Duplicate records also need data cleaning
 Why Is Data Preprocessing Important?

• No quality data, no quality mining results!

• Quality decisions must be based on quality data
• e.g., duplicate or missing data may cause incorrect or even
misleading statistics.
• Data warehouse needs consistent integration of quality
data
• Data extraction, cleaning, and transformation comprises
the majority of the work of building a data warehouse
 Multi-Dimensional Measure of Data Quality

• A well-accepted multidimensional view:

• Accuracy
• Completeness
• Consistency
• Timeliness
• Believability
• Value added
• Interpretability
• Accessibility
• Broad categories:
• Intrinsic, contextual, representational, and accessibility
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data cleaning
• Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove
outliers, and resolve inconsistencies
• Data integration
• Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
• Data transformation
• Normalization and aggregation
• Data reduction
• Obtains reduced representation in volume but produces the same
or similar analytical results
• Data discretization
• Part of data reduction but with particular importance, especially for
numerical data
Forms of Data Preprocessing
 Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

• Why preprocess the data?

• Descriptive data summarization

• Data cleaning

• Data integration and transformation

• Data reduction

• Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

• Summary
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 36

Mining Data Descriptive Characteristics

• Motivation
• To better understand the data: central tendency, variation and
spread
• Data dispersion characteristics
• median, max, min, quantiles, outliers, variance, etc.
• Numerical dimensions correspond to sorted intervals
• Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities of precision
• Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals
• Dispersion analysis on computed measures
• Folding measures into numerical dimensions
• Boxplot or quantile analysis on the transformed cube
 Measuring the Central Tendency


1 n x
• Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): x   xi
n i 1 N
n
• Weighted arithmetic mean: w x i i
x i 1
• Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values n

w
i 1
i

• Median: A holistic measure

• Middle value if odd number of values, or average of the middle two
values otherwise
• Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data): n / 2  ( f )l
median  L1  ( )c
• Mode f median
• Value that occurs most frequently in the data
• Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal
• Empirical formula: mean  mode  3  (mean  median)
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 37
Symmetric vs. Skewed Data

• Median, mean and mode of symmetric,

positively and negatively skewed data

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 38

 Measuring the Dispersion of Data
• Quartiles, outliers and boxplots
• Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)
• Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1
• Five number summary: min, Q1, M, Q3, max
• Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles, median is marked, whiskers, and
plot outlier individually
• Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR
• Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: 1σ) n
1 n
   (x   ) 2
i
2
 x i
2
 2
• Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation) N i 1 N i 1

n n n
1 1 1
  
2
s2  ( xi  x ) 2
 [ xi  ( xi ]
) 2

n  1 i 1 n  1 i 1 n i 1

• Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39
 Properties of Normal Distribution Curve
• The normal (distribution) curve
• From μ–σ to μ+σ: contains about 68% of the
measurements (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation)
• From μ–2σ to μ+2σ: contains about 95% of it
• From μ–3σ to μ+3σ: contains about 99.7% of it

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 40

 Boxplot Analysis

• Five-number summary of a distribution:

Minimum, Q1, M, Q3, Maximum

• Boxplot
• Data is represented with a box
• The ends of the box are at the first and third
quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is IRQ
• The median is marked by a line within the box
• Whiskers: two lines outside the box extend to
Minimum and Maximum

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 41

 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 42

Visualization of Data Dispersion: Boxplot Analysis

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 43

Histogram Analysis

• Graph displays of basic statistical class descriptions

• Frequency histograms
• A univariate graphical method
• Consists of a set of rectangles that reflect the counts or
frequencies of the classes present in the given data
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 44

Quantile Plot
• Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both
the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
• Plots quantile information
• For a data xi data sorted in increasing order, fi indicates
that approximately 100 fi% of the data are below or equal
to the value xi
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 45

Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot

• Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against
the corresponding quantiles of another
• Allows the user to view whether there is a shift in going
from one distribution to another
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 46

Scatter plot
• Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of
points, outliers, etc
• Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 47

Loess Curve
• Adds a smooth curve to a scatter plot in order to provide
better perception of the pattern of dependence
• Loess curve is fitted by setting two parameters: a
smoothing parameter, and the degree of the polynomials
that are fitted by the regression
 Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 48

 Not Correlated Data

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 49

 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 50
Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical
Descriptions

• Histogram: (shown before)

• Boxplot: (covered before)
• Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi indicating that
approximately 100 fi % of data are  xi
• Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot: graphs the quantiles of one
univariant distribution against the corresponding quantiles
of another
• Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates
and plotted as points in the plane
• Loess (local regression) curve: add a smooth curve to a
scatter plot to provide better perception of the pattern of
dependence
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 51

Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

• Why preprocess the data?

• Descriptive data summarization

• Data cleaning

• Data integration and transformation

• Data reduction

• Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

• Summary
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 52

Data Cleaning
• Importance
• “Data cleaning is one of the three biggest problems in
data warehousing”—Ralph Kimball
• “Data cleaning is the number one problem in data
warehousing”—DCI survey
• Data cleaning tasks

• Fill in missing values

• Identify outliers and smooth out noisy data

• Correct inconsistent data

• Resolve redundancy caused by data integration

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 53

Missing Data

• Data is not always available

• E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several attributes,
such as customer income in sales data
• Missing data may be due to
• equipment malfunction
• inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
• data not entered due to misunderstanding
• certain data may not be considered important at the time of entry
• not register history or changes of the data
• Missing data may need to be inferred.
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 54

How to Handle Missing Data?

• Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (assuming
the tasks in classification—not effective when the percentage of
missing values per attribute varies considerably.
• Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?

• Fill in it automatically with

• a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!

• the attribute mean

• the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class:
smarter
• the most probable value: inference-based such as Bayesian
formula or decision tree
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 55

Noisy Data
• Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
• Incorrect attribute values may due to
• faulty data collection instruments
• data entry problems
• data transmission problems
• technology limitation
• inconsistency in naming convention
• Other data problems which requires data cleaning
• duplicate records
• incomplete data
• inconsistent data
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 56

How to Handle Noisy Data?

• Binning
• first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins
• then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin
median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc.
• Regression
• smooth by fitting the data into regression functions
• Clustering
• detect and remove outliers
• Combined computer and human inspection
• detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g., deal
with possible outliers)
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 57

Simple Discretization Methods: Binning

• Equal-width (distance) partitioning

• Divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid

• if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the width

of intervals will be: W = (B –A)/N.

• The most straightforward, but outliers may dominate presentation

• Skewed data is not handled well

• Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning

• Divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately

same number of samples

• Good data scaling

• Managing categorical attributes can be tricky

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 58

Binning Methods for Data

Smoothing
Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28,
29, 34
* Partition into equal-frequency (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 59

Regression
y

Y1

Y1’ y=x+1

X1 x
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 60

Cluster Analysis
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 61

Data Cleaning as a Process

• Data discrepancy detection
• Use metadata (e.g., domain, range, dependency, distribution)
• Check field overloading
• Check uniqueness rule, consecutive rule and null rule
• Use commercial tools
• Data scrubbing: use simple domain knowledge (e.g., postal code,
spell-check) to detect errors and make corrections
• Data auditing: by analyzing data to discover rules and relationship
to detect violators (e.g., correlation and clustering to find outliers)
• Data migration and integration
• Data migration tools: allow transformations to be specified
• ETL (Extraction/Transformation/Loading) tools: allow users to
specify transformations through a graphical user interface
• Integration of the two processes
• Iterative and interactive (e.g., Potter’s Wheels)
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 62

Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

• Why preprocess the data?

• Data cleaning

• Data integration and transformation

• Data reduction

• Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

• Summary
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 63

Data Integration
• Data integration:
• Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent
store
• Schema integration: e.g., A.cust-id  B.cust-#
• Integrate metadata from different sources
• Entity identification problem:
• Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g.,
Bill Clinton = William Clinton
• Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
• For the same real world entity, attribute values from
different sources are different
• Possible reasons: different representations, different
scales, e.g., metric vs. British units
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 64

Handling Redundancy in Data Integration

• Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple

databases
• Object identification: The same attribute or object may
have different names in different databases
• Derivable data: One attribute may be a “derived”
attribute in another table, e.g., annual revenue
• Redundant attributes may be able to be detected by
correlation analysis
• Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may
help reduce/avoid redundancies and inconsistencies and
improve mining speed and quality
 Correlation Analysis (Numerical Data)

• Correlation coefficient (also called Pearson’s product

moment coefficient)

rA, B 
 ( A  A)( B  B)  ( AB)  n AB

(n  1)AB (n  1)AB

where n is the number of tuples, Aand B are the respective means

of A and B, σA and σB are the respective standard deviation of A and B,
and Σ(AB) is the sum of the AB cross-product.
• If rA,B > 0, A and B are positively correlated (A’s values
increase as B’s). The higher, the stronger correlation.
• rA,B = 0: independent; rA,B < 0: negatively correlated

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 65

 Correlation Analysis (Categorical Data)

• Χ2 (chi-square) test

(Observed  Expected ) 2
2  
Expected
• The larger the Χ2 value, the more likely the variables are
related
• The cells that contribute the most to the Χ2 value are those
whose actual count is very different from the expected
count
• Correlation does not imply causality
• # of hospitals and # of car-theft in a city are correlated
• Both are causally linked to the third variable: population

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 66

 Chi-Square Calculation: An Example

Play chess Not play chess Sum (row)

Like science fiction 250(90) 200(360) 450

Not like science fiction 50(210) 1000(840) 1050

Sum(col.) 300 1200 1500

• Χ2 (chi-square) calculation (numbers in parenthesis are

expected counts calculated based on the data distribution in
the two categories)
( 250  90) 2
(50  210) 2
( 200  360) 2
(1000  840) 2
2      507.93
90 210 360 840
• It shows that like_science_fiction and play_chess are
correlated in the group
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 67
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 68

Data Transformation

• Smoothing: remove noise from data

• Aggregation: summarization, data cube construction
• Generalization: concept hierarchy climbing
• Normalization: scaled to fall within a small, specified
range
• min-max normalization
• z-score normalization
• normalization by decimal scaling
• Attribute/feature construction
• New attributes constructed from the given ones
 Data Transformation: Normalization
• Min-max normalization: to [new_minA, new_maxA]
v  minA
v'  (new _ maxA  new _ minA)  new _ minA
maxA  minA
• Ex. Let income range $12,000 to $98,000 normalized to [0.0, 1.0].
73,600  12,000
(1.0  0)  0  0.716
Then $73,000 is mapped to 98,000  12,000

• Z-score normalization (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation):

v  A
v' 
 A

73,600  54,000
• Ex. Let μ = 54,000, σ = 16,000. Then  1.225
16,000
• Normalization by decimal scaling
v
v'  j Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(|ν’|) < 1
10
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 69
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 70

Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

• Why preprocess the data?

• Data cleaning

• Data integration and transformation

• Data reduction

• Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

• Summary
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 71

Data Reduction Strategies

• Why data reduction?

• A database/data warehouse may store terabytes of data
• Complex data analysis/mining may take a very long time to run on
the complete data set
• Data reduction
• Obtain a reduced representation of the data set that is much
smaller in volume but yet produce the same (or almost the same)
analytical results
• Data reduction strategies
• Data cube aggregation:
• Dimensionality reduction — e.g., remove unimportant attributes
• Data Compression
• Numerosity reduction — e.g., fit data into models
• Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 72

Data Cube Aggregation

• The lowest level of a data cube (base cuboid)

• The aggregated data for an individual entity of interest
• E.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse
• Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes
• Further reduce the size of data to deal with
• Reference appropriate levels
• Use the smallest representation which is enough to solve
the task
• Queries regarding aggregated information should be
answered using data cube, when possible
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 73

Attribute Subset Selection

• Feature selection (i.e., attribute subset selection):

• Select a minimum set of features such that the probability
distribution of different classes given the values for those
features is as close as possible to the original distribution
given the values of all features
• reduce # of patterns in the patterns, easier to understand
• Heuristic methods (due to exponential # of choices):
• Step-wise forward selection
• Step-wise backward elimination
• Combining forward selection and backward elimination
• Decision-tree induction
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 74

Example of Decision Tree Induction

Initial attribute set:

{A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6}

A4 ?

A1? A6?

Class 1 Class 2 Class 1 Class 2

> Reduced attribute set: {A1, A4, A6}

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 75

Heuristic Feature Selection Methods

• There are 2d possible sub-features of d features

• Several heuristic feature selection methods:
• Best single features under the feature independence
assumption: choose by significance tests
• Best step-wise feature selection:
• The best single-feature is picked first
• Then next best feature condition to the first, ...
• Step-wise feature elimination:
• Repeatedly eliminate the worst feature
• Best combined feature selection and elimination
• Optimal branch and bound:
• Use feature elimination and backtracking
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 76

Data Compression
• String compression
• There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms
• Typically lossless
• But only limited manipulation is possible without
expansion
• Audio/video compression
• Typically lossy compression, with progressive refinement
• Sometimes small fragments of signal can be
reconstructed without reconstructing the whole
• Time sequence is not audio
• Typically short and vary slowly with time
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 77

Data Compression

Original Data Compressed

Data

lossless

sy
los
Original Data
Approximated
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 78
Dimensionality Reduction:
Wavelet Transformation
Haar2 Daubechie4
• Discrete wavelet transform (DWT): linear signal processing,
multi-resolutional analysis
• Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of
the strongest of the wavelet coefficients
• Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy
compression, localized in space
• Method:
• Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0’s, when
necessary)
• Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
• Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
• Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length
 DWT for Image Compression
• Image

Low Pass High Pass

Low Pass High Pass

Low Pass High Pass

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 79

 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 80
Dimensionality Reduction: Principal
Component Analysis (PCA)
• Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k ≤ n orthogonal vectors
(principal components) that can be best used to represent data
• Steps
• Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same range
• Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal components
• Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k principal
component vectors
• The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing
“significance” or strength
• Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can be reduced
by eliminating the weak components, i.e., those with low variance.
(i.e., using the strongest principal components, it is possible to
reconstruct a good approximation of the original data
• Works for numeric data only
• Used when the number of dimensions is large
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 81

Principal Component Analysis

X2

Y1

Y2

X1
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 82

Numerosity Reduction
• Reduce data volume by choosing alternative, smaller
forms of data representation
• Parametric methods
• Assume the data fits some model, estimate model
parameters, store only the parameters, and discard the
data (except possible outliers)
• Example: Log-linear models—obtain value at a point in
m-D space as the product on appropriate marginal
subspaces
• Non-parametric methods
• Do not assume models
• Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 83
Data Reduction Method (1):
Regression and Log-Linear Models

• Linear regression: Data are modeled to fit a straight line

• Often uses the least-square method to fit the line

• Multiple regression: allows a response variable Y to be

modeled as a linear function of multidimensional feature

vector

• Log-linear model: approximates discrete multidimensional

probability distributions
Regress Analysis and Log-Linear
Models
• Linear regression: Y = w X + b
• Two regression coefficients, w and b, specify the line and
are to be estimated by using the data at hand
• Using the least squares criterion to the known values of
Y1, Y2, …, X1, X2, ….
• Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2.
• Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the
above
• Log-linear models:
• The multi-way table of joint probabilities is approximated
by a product of lower-order tables
• Probability: p(a, b, c, d) = ab acad bcd
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 85

Data Reduction Method (2): Histograms

• Divide data into buckets and store

average (sum) for each bucket
• Partitioning rules:
• Equal-width: equal bucket range
• Equal-frequency (or equal-depth)
• V-optimal: with the least histogram
variance (weighted sum of the
original values that each bucket
represents)
• MaxDiff: set bucket boundary
between each pair for pairs have
the β–1 largest differences
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 86

Data Reduction Method (3): Clustering

• Partition data set into clusters based on similarity, and store cluster

representation (e.g., centroid and diameter) only

• Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if data is “smeared”

• Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in multi-dimensional

index tree structures

• There are many choices of clustering definitions and clustering

algorithms
• Cluster analysis will be studied in depth in Chapter 7
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 87

Data Reduction Method (4): Sampling

• Sampling: obtaining a small sample s to represent the

whole data set N
• Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is
potentially sub-linear to the size of the data
• Choose a representative subset of the data
• Simple random sampling may have very poor
performance in the presence of skew
• Develop adaptive sampling methods
• Stratified sampling:
• Approximate the percentage of each class (or subpopulation of interest)
in the overall database
• Used in conjunction with skewed data
• Note: Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a
time)
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 88

Sampling: with or without Replacement

R S WOR ndom
S le ra hout
i m p
(s
p l e wit
sam ment)
e p l a ce
r

SRSW
R

Raw Data
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 89

Sampling: Cluster or Stratified Sampling

Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 90

Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

• Why preprocess the data?

• Data cleaning

• Data integration and transformation

• Data reduction

• Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

• Summary
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 91

Discretization
• Three types of attributes:

• Nominal — values from an unordered set, e.g., color, profession

• Ordinal — values from an ordered set, e.g., military or academic

rank
• Continuous — real numbers, e.g., integer or real numbers

• Discretization:

• Divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals

• Some classification algorithms only accept categorical attributes.

• Reduce data size by discretization

• Prepare for further analysis

 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 92

Discretization and Concept

Hierarchy
• Discretization

• Reduce the number of values for a given continuous attribute by

dividing the range of the attribute into intervals
• Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data values

• Supervised vs. unsupervised

• Split (top-down) vs. merge (bottom-up)

• Discretization can be performed recursively on an attribute

• Concept hierarchy formation

• Recursively reduce the data by collecting and replacing low level

concepts (such as numeric values for age) by higher level concepts
(such as young, middle-aged, or senior)
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 93
Discretization and Concept Hierarchy Generation
for Numeric Data

• Typical methods: All the methods can be applied recursively

• Binning (covered above)

• Top-down split, unsupervised,

• Histogram analysis (covered above)

• Top-down split, unsupervised

• Clustering analysis (covered above)

• Either top-down split or bottom-up merge, unsupervised

• Entropy-based discretization: supervised, top-down split

• Interval merging by 2 Analysis: unsupervised, bottom-up merge

• Segmentation by natural partitioning: top-down split, unsupervised

 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 94

Entropy-Based Discretization
• Given a set of samples S, if S is partitioned into two intervals S 1 and S2
using boundary T, the information gain after partitioning is
| S1 | |S |
I (S , T )  Entropy ( S 1)  2 Entropy ( S 2)
|S| |S|
• Entropy is calculated based on class distribution of the samples in the
set. Given m classes, the entropy of Sm1 is
Entropy ( S1 )   pi log 2 ( pi )
i 1

where pi is the probability of class i in S1

• The boundary that minimizes the entropy function over all possible
boundaries is selected as a binary discretization
• The process is recursively applied to partitions obtained until some
stopping criterion is met
• Such a boundary may reduce data size and improve classification
accuracy
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 95

Interval Merge by 2 Analysis

• Merging-based (bottom-up) vs. splitting-based methods

• Merge: Find the best neighboring intervals and merge them to form larger
intervals recursively
• ChiMerge [Kerber AAAI 1992, See also Liu et al. DMKD 2002]

• Initially, each distinct value of a numerical attr. A is considered to be

one interval
• 2 tests are performed for every pair of adjacent intervals

• Adjacent intervals with the least 2 values are merged together, since
low 2 values for a pair indicate similar class distributions
• This merge process proceeds recursively until a predefined stopping
criterion is met (such as significance level, max-interval, max
inconsistency, etc.)
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 96

Segmentation by Natural Partitioning

• A simply 3-4-5 rule can be used to segment numeric data

into relatively uniform, “natural” intervals.
• If an interval covers 3, 6, 7 or 9 distinct values at the
most significant digit, partition the range into 3 equi-
width intervals
• If it covers 2, 4, or 8 distinct values at the most
significant digit, partition the range into 4 intervals
• If it covers 1, 5, or 10 distinct values at the most
significant digit, partition the range into 5 intervals
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 97

Example of 3-4-5 Rule

count

Step 1: -$351 -$159 profit $1,838 $4,700

Min Low (i.e, 5%-tile) High(i.e, 95%-0 tile) Max
Step 2: msd=1,000 Low=-$1,000 High=$2,000

(-$1,000 - $2,000)
Step 3:

(-$1,000 - 0) (0 -$ 1,000) ($1,000 - $2,000)

(-$400 -$5,000)
Step 4:

(-$400 - 0) ($2,000 - $5, 000)

(0 - $1,000) ($1,000 - $2, 000)
(0 -
(-$400 - ($1,000 -
$200)
$1,200) ($2,000 -
-$300)
($200 - $3,000)
($1,200 -
(-$300 - $400)
$1,400)
-$200) ($3,000 -
($400 - ($1,400 - $4,000)
(-$200 - $600) $1,600) ($4,000 -
-$100) $5,000)
($600 - ($1,600 -
$800) ($800 - ($1,800 -
$1,800)
(-$100 - $1,000) $2,000)
0)
 October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 98

Concept Hierarchy Generation for Categorical Data

• Specification of a partial/total ordering of attributes explicitly

at the schema level by users or experts
• street < city < state < country
• Specification of a hierarchy for a set of values by explicit
data grouping
• {Urbana, Champaign, Chicago} < Illinois
• Specification of only a partial set of attributes
• E.g., only street < city, not others
• Automatic generation of hierarchies (or attribute levels) by
the analysis of the number of distinct values
• E.g., for a set of attributes: {street, city, state, country}
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 99

Automatic Concept Hierarchy Generation

• Some hierarchies can be automatically generated based
on the analysis of the number of distinct values per
attribute in the data set
• The attribute with the most distinct values is placed at
the lowest level of the hierarchy
• Exceptions, e.g., weekday, month, quarter, year

country 15 distinct values

province_or_ state 365 distinct values

city 3567 distinct values

street 674,339 distinct values

October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 100

Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

• Why preprocess the data?

• Data cleaning

• Data integration and transformation

• Data reduction

• Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

• Summary
 Summary
• Data preparation or preprocessing is a big issue for both
data warehousing and data mining
• Discriptive data summarization is need for quality data
preprocessing
• Data preparation includes
• Data cleaning and data integration
• Data reduction and feature selection
• Discretization
• A lot a methods have been developed but data
preprocessing still an active area of research
 References
• D. P. Ballou and G. K. Tayi. Enhancing data quality in data warehouse environments.
Communications of ACM, 42:73-78, 1999
• T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley & Sons, 2003
• T. Dasu, T. Johnson, S. Muthukrishnan, V. Shkapenyuk.
Mining Database Structure; Or, How to Build a Data Quality Browser. SIGMOD’02.
• H.V. Jagadish et al., Special Issue on Data Reduction Techniques. Bulletin of the Technical
Committee on Data Engineering, 20(4), December 1997
• D. Pyle. Data Preparation for Data Mining. Morgan Kaufmann, 1999
• E. Rahm and H. H. Do. Data Cleaning: Problems and Current Approaches. IEEE Bulletin of the
Technical Committee on Data Engineering. Vol.23, No.4
• V. Raman and J. Hellerstein. Potters Wheel: An Interactive Framework for Data Cleaning and
Transformation, VLDB’2001
• T. Redman. Data Quality: Management and Technology. Bantam Books, 1992
• Y. Wand and R. Wang. Anchoring data quality dimensions ontological foundations. Communications
of ACM, 39:86-95, 1996
• R. Wang, V. Storey, and C. Firth. A framework for analysis of data quality research. IEEE Trans.
Knowledge and Data Engineering, 7:623-640, 1995
October 15, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 103