SPECIATION
TYPES OF SPECIATION
• A biological species is only only of several species concepts that
include the morphological and phylogenetic species concepts
• The process of speciation requires populations of organisms to
become, and largely to remain, genetically isolated from one
another
TYPES OF SPECIATION
• There are two types of speciation
• Sympatric and allopatric speciation
• They are based on how gene flow is
disrupted within a population
TYPES OF SPECIATION
• Sympatric speciation enables populations that live in the same
habitat to diverge genetically
• Allopatric speciation occurs when populations are separated by a
geographical barrier and then diverge genetically
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
• Sympatric speciation: speciation where populations
within the same geographical areas diverge and become
reproductively isolated
• Factors such as chromosomal changes (in plants), and non-
random mating (in animals) alter gene flow
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
• Two species can interbreed to produce a sterile offspring
• Although the offspring is infertile, it can reproduce
asexually resulting in the formation of a separate population
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
• Allopatric speciation: speciation that occurs when a population is split
into two or more isolated groups by a geographical barrier
• Also known as geographical speciation
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
• The gene pool of the split population eventually becomes so distinct that the
two groups are unable to interbreed even if brought back together
• Some geographical barrier that lead to allopatric speciation include
a glacier or lava flow, fluctuations in ocean levels, and few
colonizers reaching a geographically separate habitat
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
• Once isolated, allele frequencies in the
two populations begin to diverge due to
natural selection, mutation, genetic drift,
and/or gene flow
• Geographical isolation does not need to be maintained
forever for speciation to occur
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
• If the population splinters off, it can be subject to
the founder effect since it already has a gene pool
that is different from the parent population
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
• Isolated groups within a population will not automatically
survive and thrive when separated into a new population
• Many isolated populations do not last long enough or
change enough to become new species
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
• Adaptive radiation: the diversification of a common ancestral
species into a variety of differently adapted species
• A form of allopatric speciation
• Islands are excellent to study speciation because it allows organisms
who have diverged from the parent population to change in response to
new environmental conditions in relative isolation
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
• Adaptive radiation does not just occur on
islands
• Two biologists at University of British
Columbia studied a finch called a red crossbill
• The twisted beak of the crossbill allows it to
pry open conifer cones
• Different sized beaks open different sized
cones
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
• Small-billed crossbeaks feed mostly on softer larch cones
• Medium-billed crossbeaks feed on harder spruce cones
• Heavy-billed crossbeaks feed on tightly closed, very hard pine
cones
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
• The crossed bill changed gradually by selective
pressure, one generation after the next, until the birds
were expert at opening tightly closed cones
• Crossed bill gave the birds an advantage over others in
the same habitat because it allowed them to eat food no
other bird could
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
• Major episodes of adaptive radiation often occur after the
evolution of a novel characteristic
• For example: the evolution of limbs in vertebrates and wings in
insects opened up new possibilities for habitat and food supplies
DIVERGENT EVOLUTION
• Divergent evolution: a pattern of evolution in which species
that were once similar to an ancestral species diverge or
become increasingly distinct
• Occurs when populations change as they adapt to different
environmental conditions
DIVERGENT EVOLUTION
• The population becomes less and less alike as they adapt, which
eventually results in two different species
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
• Convergent evolution: a pattern of evolution where similar traits
arise because different species have independently adapted to
similar environmental conditions
• Two unrelated species share similar traits
• For example: both birds and bees have wings, yet very
different ancestors
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
• Birds and bats evolved independently at different times, yet natural
selection favoured variations suitable for the same environment: air
• Since they do not have a common ancestor, bird and bat wings have
evolved quite different wings
THE SPEED OF EVOLUTIONARY
CHANGE
• Two models attempt to explain the speed at which
evolution occurs
• Gradualism and punctuated equilibrium
GRADUALISM
• Gradualism: views evolutionary change as slow and
steady, before and after a divergence
• Big changes occur by the accumulation of many small
changes
THE SPEED OF EVOLUTIONARY
CHANGE
• The fossil record rarely reveals fossils showing gradual
transition
• Paleontologists often find species appearing suddenly in the
fossil record and disappearing suddenly from the record
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
• Punctuated equilibrium: views evolutionary history as long
periods of equilibrium interrupted by periods of divergence
• Most species undergo much of their morphological change
when they first diverge from their parent species
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
• After the initial divergence, they change relatively little, even as they give rise to
other species
• The fossil record should consist mostly of fossils from the long periods of time
where little change occurred, with only a few fossils from periods of rapid change
THE SPEED OF EVOLUTIONARY
CHANGE
• Both models are at work
• Many species evolved rapidly in the history of Earth, but
many also evolved gradually over periods of time
CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON
SPECIATION
• Human activities affect genetic diversity of a population in various ways
• Habitats may become fragmented
• Convert large stretches of wilderness into croplands
• Develop wilderness areas for recreation or tourism
• Build roads or urban subdivisions
• Flood large areas of land to build dams for hydroelectric power generation
CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON
SPECIATION
• As with geographic barrier leading to allopatric events,
human-made barriers may prevent gene flow between
split populations
• Isolated populations may undergo adaptive radiation
over time
• Severely fragmented populations may die out if there
is insufficient genetic diversity
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND POPULATION DECLINE
• Unregulated hunting, habitat removal, and
other human activities cause populations to
decline abruptly and can cause a bottleneck
effect followed by genetic drift
• Large-scale loss of genetic diversity can result
in sudden inbreeding, reducing fertility rates
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND POPULATION
DECLINE
• Populations lacking genetic diversity are susceptible
to new diseases and environmental change
• Conservation and wildlife management programs
must take into account the processes affecting gene
pools to ensure wild population remain large enough
and have enough genetic diversity to survive
SPECIATION AND MASS
EXTINCTION
• Environment has a strong effect on speciation and extinction
• Environmental influences create selective pressure, and these
influences can be both positive and negative
• In some cases, new species arise, in others, species go extinct
SPECIATION AND MASS
EXTINCTION
• Biological diversity has decreased since the Cambrian period, 500 mya
• Five major mass extinctions have been identified
• Most severe at the end of the Permian, 250 mya
• 50% of all families, representing 96% of all species were thought to have
gone extinct
MASS EXTINCTION AND ADAPTIVE RADIATION OF
MAMMALS
• The Cretaceous extinction 65 mya marks boundary between the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic eras
• This extinction event was triggered by the impact of a large asteroid
• May have caused massive forest fires
MASS EXTINCTION AND ADAPTIVE RADIATION OF
MAMMALS
• During this mass extinction, more than
half the existing marine species and
many families of terrestrial plants and
animals, including the dinosaurs, were
exterminated
MASS EXTINCTION AND ADAPTIVE RADIATION OF
MAMMALS
• The Cambrian explosion
• Approximately 541 million years ago in
the Cambrian period
• Most major animal phyla appeared in the
fossil record
• Almost all present animal phyla appeared during this period.
