Geotechnical Engineering II
1. Geomechanics
1.6 Rock design and support
COURSE CONVENOR: ENG S.T. NHANDARA
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Rock structures
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Great Zimbabwe
A granite stone complex built by the ancient
kingdom of Monomutapa. Construction on the
monument began in the 11th century and
continued until the 15th century
The stone city spans an area of 7.22km2 (1,780
acres) which, at its peak, could have housed up
to 18,000 people.
It is recognised as a World heritage Site by
UNESCO.
The earliest known written mention of the
Great Zimbabwe ruins was in 1531 by Vicente
Pegado a Portugese captain who recorded it
as Symbaoe.
Later, studies of the monument were
controversial with political pressure being put
upon archaeologists by the government of
Rhodesia to deny its construction by native
African people.
The word great distinguishes the site from the
many hundreds of small ruins, now known as
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Rock structures
Taj Mahal in India, madeup of marvel
(1631-1643)
BIG temple in India, 10th century
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Rock mechanics
“Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science
of the behavior of rock; it is that branch of mechanics
which is concerned with the response of rock to the
force field of its environment”
Rock mechanics is different from the domain of soil
mechanics as later is the disintegrated part of the
former (Soil is disintegrated part of rocks).
In soil mechanics, we mostly talk about strengths,
where as in rock mechanics, it is all about weaknesses.
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Rock engineering
Rock engineering is a discipline which mostly deals with the design
of structures built in/on rocks.
These structures include:
i. building foundations
ii. Dams
iii. Slopes
iv. Shafts
v. Tunnels
vi. hydroelectric schemes
vii. Mines
viii. Radioactive waste repositories
ix. geothermal energy projects.
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Rock mechanics and Rock engineering
Rock mechanics explains the basic principles behind
rock engineering, which remains the same even
though the projects are different
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1.6.1 Physical and Mechanical properties of
rocks
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Physical and mechanical properties of
rocks
Determining the appropriate strength parameters of
rocks is important.
Appropriate tests to determine various strength
properties for rock need to be planned before any final
design
Determination of properties of soil/rock and rock
mass through laboratory or field tests.
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Physical and mechanical properties of
rocks
Laboratory tests have the limitations like variability
and sample disturbance. Also, testing is done on small
specimens and extrapolation of the measured
properties for the entire site is often challenging.
Insitu tests provide the response of a larger mass
under natural insitu condition. They provide more
economical and rapid estimates of properties.
The limitation includes poorly defined boundary
condition, non-uniform and high strain rates imposed
during testing and inability to control drainage
condition
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Rock coring and logging
Rock coring is a process which is used to obtain a rock
core and logging is a technique used to describe the
rock’s characteristics
Details about the rock core drilling and sampling may
be found out in ASTM standards (D2113-08) "Standard
practice for rock core drilling and sampling of rock for
site investigation”.
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Rock coring and logging
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Rock coring and logging
Once the rock samples are recovered and the
specimens are prepared, laboratory studies can be
conducted.
Basic rock parameters which are commonly derived
from laboratory investigations for design application
are
i. deformation modulus
ii. compressive strength (intact and rock mass)
iii. shear strength characteristics (cohesion and friction
iv. tensile strength
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Rock parameters
1. The deformation modulus in the field helps in calculating the
settlement and can be determined commonly using plate load
test or pressure meter test.
2. The compressive strength for intact rock as well as for the rock
mass is helpful in calculating the bearing capacity of footing
and may be estimated with the compressive strength test.
3. Shear strength properties helps in finding out the shearing
resistance of the interface of the structure and the foundation
rock and also to check the stability of sliding block to avoid any
shear failure.
4. Tensile strength would help if there is stiffer layer underlying a
weaker layer in the foundation strata, which may lead to
flexural or punching failure.
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Physical and mechanical properties of rocks
Physical properties Mechanical properties
Specific gravity, density, unit weight Elastic modulus, deformation modulus ,
poisson ratio
Porosity, void ratio Uniaxial compressive strength
Moisture content, degree of saturation Tensile strength
Permeability Shear strength properties
Swelling properties Point load strength
Anisotropy Rock hardness
Electrical properties
Thermal properties
Durability
Mineralogical composition, mineral
structure, texture
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Average bulk unit weight for common rock
Rock Average bulk unit weight ((kN/m3)
Granite 27
Basalt 30
Gneiss 27
Marble 27
Schist 26
Sandstone 26
Hard coal 15
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Permeability coefficients for common rock types
Rock type (intact) Kγ(cm/s)
Sandstone 0.2-6 x 10-9
Granite 0.5-2 x 10-10
Limestone 1-12 x 10-12
Schist 0.5-1.5 x 10-10
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Thermal expansion for different rock types
Rock type α(10-6)K-1
Basalt 5.4
Limestone 2.5 – 20
Granite 7.5 – 9
Sandstone 10
Marble 5.4 - 7
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Rock strength
The strength of a rock reduces with increase in
discontinuities/ fractures/ joints
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Rock strength
The main considerations are:
i. Information obtained from the testing of rock specimens or
from field observations are not sufficient to provide a
complete picture of the rock mass due to uncertainties while
dealing with rock mass.
ii. Rock is a very complex material and comes with
discontinuous (micro-discontinuities like pores, micro cracks
and macro-discontinuities joints, shears, faults).
iii. Highly anisotropic as its properties vary with directions and
highly heterogeneous as its properties vary from point to
point.
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iv. Properties can be time-dependent
v. Because of the complex nature of rock as an
engineering material, the design methods in rock
engineering can vary depending on the geologic
environment, the rock type, the type of engineering
structure, the design loads that have to be considered,
and the end uses for which the engineering structure is
intended.
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1.6.2 Rock design
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Rock design
Rock design applications include:
1. Structural foundations
2. Slope stability analysis
3. Tunnels
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Rock design
The general procedure in rock design includes:
1. Rock mass characterization
2. Stability analysis
3. Rock support
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Rock mass characterization
Rock mass characterisation begins with visual
inspection of the joints.
The more joint sets there are, the more likely they are to
form blocks.
Closely spaced the joints form small blocks compared to
large spaced joints.
If the joints are rough and undulating with no soft infill
they will have high shear strength.
Smooth joint with soft clay infill have low shear
strength and will slide easily leading to block failures
The table below presents a checklist which is used for
joints inspection
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Item Description
1 Number of joint sets
2 Average joint spacing for each set
3 Joint roughness
4 Joint infill or wall alteration
5 Presence of water
6 Presence of weakness zones
7 Presence of stress fractures
8 Weathering of the rock or joint fill
The angle between the surface of the stope to be mined and it
9 critical joint
30, 60 or 90
The dimensions of the excavation where the assessment was
10 carried out
Whether the excavation appears stable or rockfalls have taken
11 place
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Barton’s Q system
Barton’s Q system is used to describe rock mass characteristics and group the
ground conditions into classes. Q is given by the equation:
Q = (RQD/Jn) x (Jr/Ja) x (Jw/SRF)
Where: Jn is the joint set number
Jr is the joint roughness number
Ja is the joint alteration number
Jw is the joint water reduction factor
SRF is the stress reduction factor
RQD/Jn is a measure of the rock block size
Jr/Ja represents the joint shear strength
Jw/SRF represents the deterioration of conditions due to water, shear zones and
stress.
RQD is the rock quality designation
The joint parameters can be estimated using Tables
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Barton’s Q system
The rock mass can be divided into 9 classes depending on the
Q value as shown below:
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Rock stability analysis
Stability graphs are used in the stability analysis of
rock surfaces.
The stability graphs plot the Stability Number (N’),
which represents the rock mass characteristics, versus
the Hydraulic Radius (HR), which is the area divided
by the perimeter.
High N’ values represent good quality rock masses.
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Rock stability analysis
The Stability Number N’ can be determined as follows:
N’ = Q’ x A x B x C
Where:
Q’=RQD/Jn x Jr/Ja x Jw (Q without SRF)
A= Rock Stress factor: For stable rock A = 1. If moderate or severe stress
damage observed, then values of 0.5 or 0.1 could be assumed
B= Joint orientation factor : which ranges from 0.1 for joints less than 30o to 1.0
for joints greater than 60o. For joints between 30o and 60o intermediate values
can be used
C= Gravity factor: ranges from 1 to 8 depending on the failure mechanism,
Flat roofs are the least stable and have C = 2, Footwalls are the most stable
and C= 8
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Stability analysis graph
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Rock stability analysis
Stability graphs are used to determine whether a rock
surface lies in the Stable, Transitional or Caved Zones.
i. The Stable zone does not require reinforcement and
the rocks exhibit little or no deterioration during their
service life.
ii. The Transition zone exhibit limited wall failure
and/or block fall out involving less than 30% of the face
area
iii. The Caving zone represents instability, imminent
failure and collapse
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1.6.3 Rock support
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Design of rock support
The design of a rock support system depends on the
mode of failure:
Rock failure can be due to:
a) Discrete wedge
b) Reefs
c) Blocky conditions
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a) Discrete wedge
The number of support units (N) required to hold up a wedge can be
calculated as follows:
Where: = density of the rock (usually 27 kN/m3, unless there is a high metal content)
g = acceleration due to gravity (use 9.81 m/s 2)
h, w, l = height, width and length of the wedge
F = Factor of safety (use 1.5)
S = Strength of support unit
If h cannot be measured, it can be calculated as follows:
Where: and are the dips of the joint surfaces as shown in
the illustration
The resulting bolt length must be L = h + b. b is calculated as follows: 𝑏= 𝑆/𝐵
Where: B = Bond strength
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b)Reef joints
For reef parallel joints the number of support units per square meter is
given by the expression:
If a square pattern is used the support spacing =1/√𝐷.
For rockbolts, the critical bond length (b) must be determined b = S/B
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c) Blocky conditions
Figure a: Stability analysis for blocky conditions (Q Figure b: Estimation of square meters per
versus Span Graph) support unit using Q
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Blocky condition
For blocky conditions the rock mass classification system or
Q system can be used to determine the support requirements.
The Q values can be plotted against the unsupported span
and the factor of safety determined.
The minimum permissible factor of safety is 1.2 and should
not be less than 1.0.
Where the safety factor is less than 1.0 systematic support
should be provided.
The numbers in Figure b represent the square meters per
support unit
The length of the bolts is given by the expression:
L=2 + 0.15w/2
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1.6.4 Types of rock support
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i. Rock bolts
Rock bolts provide tensile reinforcement to the rockmass
and become part of the support system.
They prevent rock failure and can modify ground behavior.
They transfer the load from the unstable rock mass into
stable ground.
Bolts can be mechanically anchored, friction anchored or
grouted.
For effective load transfer there should be a strong bond
between the bolt and the rock.
The bond strength is a function of friction and
interlocking at the bolt/rock or bolt grout and grout rock
interfaces.
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Rock bolts
Rock bolt specifications
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ii. Shepherd crooks
Shepherd crooks are used when the excavation height
exceeds 2.0m.
They can be manufactured from high yield steel, mild or
special steel depending on the strength requirements.
The crooks also have varying diameters. Mild steel
shepherd crooks have low strength and a minimum
specification of high yield steel and 16 mm diameter is
recommended.
They should be full column grouted. For effective bond
strength the water cement ratio (W:C) should be
between 0.35 and 0.4.
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Shepherd crooks
Shepherd crook specifications
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iii. Split sets
Split sets are also known as friction bolts.
They are used on hard rock strata
Split sets are dependent on the friction generated
between the strata and the bolt.
The drill hole diameter should be such that it
generates sufficient friction.
Their main advantage is that they are easy to install
and can be easily applied on tunnels and shafts.
However they are susceptible to corrosion and as such
they should be galvanized or cement grouted
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Split sets
Split sets tensile strength
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iv. Mesh support
Mesh support is used when there is blocky ground or
stress fracturing of rocks.
There are two main types of mesh; diamond mesh and
weld mesh.
The mesh aperture should not exceed 100mm x
100mmto prevent small rocks from falling through.
Wherever mesh is installed it should be pulled tightly
against the rock and mesh panels should overlap by at
least 3 apertures to ensure a tight continuous system.
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Mesh support
a) Diamond mesh with lacing b) Weld mesh and straps
Diamond mesh Weld mesh
i. diamond aperture i. square or rectangular aperture
ii. flexible ii. rigid
iii. secured to rock with shepherd
crooks and lacing iii. secured with rock bolts
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v. Timber poles
Timber poles are very strong, easy to install
They are in excavations of less than 2.0m
They can be used as a temporary support during
construction of highways or a permanent support in
mine tunnels
It is recommended that hard wood, such as gum trees,
with diameter of at least 150 mm should be used
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Timber poles
The mean strengths of timber poles for different diameters
are listed below.
However these need to be down rated to cater for timber
creep, loading rate and the variability in strength.
For mine poles underground tests indicate that the peak
load capacities in the underground situation may be as low
as 40% of those determined in laboratory tests.
The tendency to buckle under load increases with increasing
length of mine pole. It is best to carry out a laboratory test
programme and calculate the underground strength using
the methods described in Ryder and Jager (2002).
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Timber poles
mine poles
with head
boards
Strength of timber poles
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vi. Temporary support during drilling
Drilling of tunnels may result in roof collapses
especially in unstable rocks. This is a significant
hazard.
It is therefore important to install temporary support
when drilling tunnels
The temporary support should comprise of mine poles
at a spacing of not less than 1.5 m x 1.5 m.
In cases where there is stress fracturing or blocky
ground, it is recommended that safety nets are also
installed
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Temporary support during drilling
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Example 1.10
Example 1: A 40m dimeter tunnel is to be drilled through a rock with a Q rating of
20, a gravity factor of 4 and a stress reduction factor of 1,4. The rock exhibits
moderate damage and the joints have an average inclination of less than .The
geologic mapping shows a 6m wide and 7.2m long wedge with dip angles of . Assess
the stability of the tunnel and design a rockbolt support system given that the bolts
have a tensile strength of 150kN and the rock-bolt bond strength is 30kN/m
Example 2: A 50m wide stope is to be mined in an underground mine whose hanging
wall has a Q value of 10. Assess its stability given that the mode of failure is by
blocks.
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The END...
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