A thermoelectric generator (TEG), also called a Seebeck generator, is a solid state

device that converts heat flux (temperature differences) directly into electrical energy
through a phenomenon called the Seebeck effect[(a form of thermoelectric effect).
They work by using a temperature gradient between the two sides of the generator.
The hot end of the generator has more energy than the cold end, so the hot electrons
move faster than the cold electrons.
This causes the cold end to become negatively charged and the hot end to become
positively charged.
• Thermoelectric generators function like heat engines, but are less bulky and have no
moving parts.
• Thermoelectric converters use a series of semiconductor thermoelectric cells to convert
thermal energy into electrical energy.
• However, TEGs are typically more expensive and less efficient.[Thermoelectric
converters, also known as thermoelectric generators (TEGs), convert heat energy
into electrical energy.
• Conversion between thermal and electrical energy occurs due to three main
thermoelectric phenomena: the Seebeck effect, the Peltier effect, and the
Thomson effect.
• The Seebeck effect is the conversion of a temperature gradient to electricity; the
Peltier effect indicates that an electric current would generate temperature
difference at the joint of two different materials, and the Thomson effect is an
extension to the Peltier–Seebeck model.
• In conclusion, in the Peltier effect, the current is the driving work to heat, whereas in
Seebeck, the difference in heat is the driving work to current.
 Seebeck Effect

• Basic principle behind thermoelectric power generator is Seebeck effect, which was discovered in
1821 and is stated as: “whenever there is a temperature difference between the two junctions in a
loop, made up of two dissimilar conductors, thermal electromotive force is produced in the loop”.
• Such a loop is known as a thermocouple
• The effect is more pronounced in thermocouples formed with P type and N type semiconductor
materials
• The Seebeck Effect- By applying heat to two different conductors a current can be generated. The
Seebeck Coefficient is given by:
x where  is the electric field.
 
dT / dx
• The current is transported through charge carriers (opposite the hole flow or with electron flow).
• Heat transfer occurs in the direction of charge carrier movement.
Vo = axy x (Th – Tc)

where:
Vo = the output voltage in volts
axy = the differential Seebeck coefficient between the two
materials, x and y, in volts/°K
Th and Tc = the hot and cold thermocouple temperatures,
• A thermoelectric generator consists of two main components:
• A) Thermoelectric materials and B) Thermoelectric modules.
Thermoelectric materials are materials that exhibit the
Seebeck effect, meaning that they generate an electric
voltage when subjected to a temperature gradient.

Thermoelectric materials can be classified into two types:

n-type and p-type.

N-type materials have an excess of electrons, while p-type

materials have a deficiency of electrons.
When an n-type material and a p-type material are
connected in series by metal electrodes, they form a
thermocouple, which is the basic unit of a thermoelectric
generator.
• A thermoelectric module is a device that contains many thermocouples connected
electrically in series and thermally in parallel.
• A thermoelectric module has two sides: a hot side and a cold side.
• When the hot side is exposed to a heat source and the cold side is exposed to a heat
sink, a temperature difference is created across the module, causing a current to flow
through the circuit.
• The current can be used to power an external load or charge a battery. The voltage
and power output of a thermoelectric module depends on the number of
thermocouples, the temperature difference, the Seebeck coefficient, and the electrical
and thermal resistances of the materials
• In N type material, current flows in the direction of heat flow. The emf produced is
proportional to the temperature gradient between the two junctions. The power
produced,
Material A and B have different carrier
concentration.
When a junction is formed, a contact potential
is produced due to transfer of carriers across
the junction from high concentration to low
concentration side.
When both junctions are held at same
temperature, contact potentials are same and
net voltage in the loop is zero.
In case of differential temperature, more
carriers at high temperature junction will
cross to other side of the junction as they
acquire higher energy, thus increasing the
contact potential at this junction.
A net emf is thus produced in the loop
• The typical efficiency of TEGs is around 5–8%, although it can be higher. Older
devices used bimetallic junctions and were bulky.
• More recent devices use highly doped semiconductors made from bismuth telluride
(Bi2Te3), lead telluride (PbTe) calcium manganese oxide (Ca2Mn3O8),or
combinations thereof,depending on application temperature.
• These are solid-state devices and unlike dynamos have no moving parts, with the
occasional exception of a fan or pump to improve heat transfer.

• If the hot region is around 1273K and the ZT values of 3 - 4 are implemented, the
efficiency is approximately 33-37%; allowing TEG's to compete with certain heat
engine efficiencies
• The efficiency of a thermoelectric generator is defined as the ratio of the
electrical power output to the heat input from the source.
• The efficiency of a thermoelectric generator is limited by the Carnot
efficiency, which is the maximum possible efficiency for any heat engine
operating between two temperatures.
• The Carnot efficiency is given by:
 Peltier Effect

• An effect complementary to Seebeck effect, discovered in 1830, is known as Peltier

effect.
• According to this, “heat is absorbed or generated whenever a current passes through
a junction between different materials, depending on the direction of current”.
• Peltier effect is a reversible effect.
• Thus, if a current is forced through a thermocouple by connecting an electrical
source, one junction will become cold and will thus absorb energy from ambient and
the other junction will become hot and dissipate heat to surroundings.
• This principle can be used for evacuation of heat (i.e. cooling/refrigeration) from one
area and releasing it to another area (heating) through electrical means.
• Peltier Effect- when a voltage or DC current is applied to two dissimilar
conductors, a circuit can be created that allows for continuous heat transport
between the conductor’s junctions.

Qc or Qh = pxy x I

where:
pxy is the differential Peltier coefficient between the two
materials, x and y, in volts I is the electric current flow in
amperes Qc, Qh is the rate of cooling and heating, respectively,
in watts.

If a voltage (Vin) is applied to terminals Tl and T2 an electrical current (I) will flow in the circuit. As a result
of the current flow, a slight cooling effect (Qc) will occur at thermocouple junction A where heat is
absorbed and a heating effect (Qh) will occur at junction B where heat is expelled.
Note that this effect may be reversed whereby a change in the direction of electric current flow will reverse
the direction of heat flow.
(Tellurex, [Link])
The relationship between Seebeck coefficient and Peltier coefficient as derived by
Kelvin is given as:
 Thomson Effect

• When an electric current flows through a material having temperature gradient there is an evolution
(or absorption) of heat.
• This phenomenon is called Thompson effect.
• The Thomson effect is reversible, as reversing the direction of current flow reverses the direction of
heat transfer without change in magnitude
 Thermoelectric Power Generator

• An elementary thermoelectric generator consisting of one pair of thermocouple is shown. The

voltage and power output of one pair is very small.
• Several such units may be connected in series to get a workable voltage

a) Elementary thermoelectric generator (b) A single thermoelectric converter

Metallic thermocouple elements are used where mechanical considerations such as
ductility are more important.
The Seebeck effect of metallic thermoelectric elements is however, low.
The Seebeck coefficient and the figure of merit ZT for some materials are given below
 Thermal Efficiency
• The thermal efficiency of thermoelectric converter is defined as the ratio of power P
delivered to load resistance RL to heat energy rate Qh supplied to hot junction from
the source
PROBLEM 1
PROBLEM 2
 Essentials
of
Thermoelectric (TE) Cooling/Refregeration
 Thermoelectric (TE) cooler
• A thermoelectric (TE) cooler, sometimes called a thermoelectric module or
Peltier cooler, is a semiconductor-based electronic component that functions
as a small heat pump.
• By applying a low voltage DC power source to a TE module, heat will be
moved through the module from one side to the other.
• One module face, therefore, will be cooled while the opposite face
simultaneously is heated. It is important to note that this phenomenon may be
reversed whereby a change in the polarity (plus and minus) of the applied DC
voltage will cause heat to be moved in the opposite direction.
• Consequently, a thermoelectric module may be used for both heating and
cooling thereby making it highly suitable for precise temperature control
applications.
 How does Peltier cooling work?
• The effect creates a temperature difference by transferring heat between
two electrical junctions.
• A voltage is applied across joined conductors to create an electric current.
• When the current flows through the junctions of the two conductors, heat is
removed at one junction and cooling occurs.

Common thermoelectric materials used as semiconductors include bismuth

telluride, lead telluride, silicon–germanium, and bismuth antimonide alloys.
Why are TE Coolers Used for Cooling?
• No moving parts make them very reliable; approximately 105 hrs of operation at 100
degrees Celsius, longer for lower temps (Goldsmid,1986).
• Ideal when precise temperature control is required.
• Ability to lower temperature below ambient.
• Heat transport controlled by current input.
• Able to operate in any orientation.
• Compact size make them useful for applications where size or weight is a constraint.
• Ability to alternate between heating and cooling.
• Excellent cooling alternative to vapor compression coolers for systems that are
sensitive to mechanical vibration.

(TE Tecnology, Inc., [Link]

 Basic Principles

• The Seebeck Effect- is the reverse of the Peltier Effect. By applying heat to
two different conductors a current can be generated. The Seebeck Coefficient
is given by: x
  where  is the electric field.
dT / dx
• The current is transported through charge carriers (opposite the hole flow or
with electron flow).
• Heat transfer occurs in the direction of charge carrier movement.

Vo = axy x (Th – Tc)

where:
Vo = the output voltage in volts
axy = the differential Seebeck coefficient between the two
materials, x and y, in volts/°K
Th and Tc = the hot and cold thermocouple temperatures,
respectively, in °K (Tellurex, [Link])
Basic Principles

• Applying a current (e- carriers) transports heat from the warmer junction
to the cooler junction.
(Tellurex, [Link])
Basic Principles
• Bismuth telluride (a semiconductor), is sandwiched between two conductors, usually
copper. A semiconductor (called a pellet) is used because they can be optimized for
pumping heat and because the type of charge carriers within them can be chosen. The
semiconductor in this examples N type (doped with electrons) therefore, the electrons
move towards the positive end of the battery.

• The semiconductor is soldered to two conductive materials, like copper. When the
voltage is applied heat is transported in the direction of current flow.

(Tellurex, [Link])
Basic Principles

(Tellurex, [Link])
Basic Principles
• When a p type semiconductor (doped with holes) is used instead, the holes
move in a direction opposite the current flow. The heat is also transported in a
direction opposite the current flow and in the direction of the holes.
Essentially, the charge carriers dictate the direction of heat flow.

(Tellurex, [Link])
 Products Which Typically Use Thermoelectric Power

• Small refrigerators and wine coolers

• Electric portable picnic, beverage, and car coolers
• Portable and personal air conditioning and other small cooling
appliances
• Cooled seating
• Cooled coverings such as blankets
Disadvantages
• Able to dissipate limited amount of heat flux.
• Lower coefficient of performance than vapor-compression
systems.
• Relegated to low heat flux applications.
• More total heat to remove than without a TEC.

(Simons and Chu, 2000)

Which is Better – Condenser Cooler or Thermoelectric Cooler?
Choose a thermostatic cooler if...
•✓ You're very concerned about the environment
•✓ You plan to keep it in a room with steady temperatures year round
•✓ You are aging wine and wish to reduce vibrations that can stir up sediment
•✓ You want exact control over the interior temperature

Choose a compressor cooler if...

•✓ You live in a climate with temperature extremes
•✓ You want to be able to chill carbonated beverages to be extra-cold
•✓ You aren't bothered by the sound of your regular refrigerator
•✓ You need an extra-large storage capacity
Which Industries Use TE Cooling?

• Electronic
• Medical
• Aerospace
• Telecommunications

(TE Tecnology, Inc., [Link]

Applications
Cooling:
• Electronic enclosures
• Laser diodes
• Laboratory instruments
• Temperature baths
• Refrigerators
• Telecommunications equipment
• Temperature control in missiles and space systems
• Heat transport ranges vary from a few milliwatts to several thousand watts,
however, since the efficiency of TE devices are low, smaller heat transfer
applications are more practical.

(TE Tecnology, Inc.,[Link]

 Thermomagnetic converter
A thermomagnetic converter is a device that converts thermal energy into magnetic
energy and then into electrical energy.
It uses alloys whose magnetic properties are highly temperature-
dependent. Alternating magnetization induces an electrical voltage in a coil.

Thermomagnetic converters use the magnetocaloric effect, which is one of the

most popular methods to convert heat into mechanical or electrical energy.

Researchers presented the first concepts of thermomagnetic converters in the 19th

century.
 Thermomagnetic converters have the following characteristics:
•They convert waste heat into electrical power
•They use alloys with temperature-dependent magnetic properties
•They use the magnetocaloric effect
•They have low energy conversion efficiency rates
•They require a relatively constant heat source
•They have high output resistance
•They have adverse thermal characteristics
To achieve high thermomagnetic conversion efficiency, materials must
meet three main requirements:

• Magnetic phase transition near room temperature

• Substantial change in magnetization with temperature
• High thermal conductivity

Thermomagnetic converters include:

• Thermomagnetic generators
• Thermomagnetic motors
• Thermomagnetic heat engines
 Other Name/Device working on same principle

• Thermomagnetic Motor
• Curie Engine
• Tesla Motor
• Curie Temperature Rotor
 Tesla’s motor
• In operation, a facsimile of Tesla’s motor consists of a movable rider
made of a soft magnetic material that is pulled in one direction by a
spring and in the opposite direction by a magnet — the magnet being
the stronger of the two forces. The rider is pulled by the magnet to a
position where it can be heated by a flame (or other heat source).
• When the rider reaches the Curie temperature, it is no longer attracted by
the magnet and is pulled away from the flame by the spring. The rider
cools rapidly to below the Curie temperature, regains its magnetic
properties, is again attracted by the magnet to a position over the flame;
and the cycle repeats itself.
Tesla's motor
The above sequence shows how Tesla's motor operates.
As the gas flame heats the nickel, a point is reached when the attraction to the
alnico magnet is cancelled.
A weak spring pulls the arm and nickel away from the flame.
When the nickel cools, the magnetic attraction is restored and the nickel returns to its
original position.
This oscillation should be at a rate of about 20 strokes per minute.
Be careful not to heat the magnet.
 Thermomagnetic generator (TMG)
• A thermomagnetic generator (TMG) is a device that converts waste heat into
electrical power. TMGs are based on alloys with magnetic properties that are
highly temperature-dependent. The alternating magnetization of the alloy induces
an electrical voltage in a coil.
• TMGs are the only devices that require no movement. They utilize the steep
change in magnetization of a thermomagnetic material to switch the magnetic
flux. According to Faraday's law, this induces a voltage peak in a coil wrapped
around the materia

In its simplest form, a TMG consists of:

A C-shaped permanent magnet or an electro-magnet
A ferromagnetic material placed as a shun
 Thermomagnetic heat engines (TMEs)
• Thermomagnetic heat engines (TMEs) use the thermomagnetic effect to convert
heat into mechanical energy. The thermomagnetic effect is the influence of
temperature on the magnetization of magnetic material.

• TMEs use a low-grade heat source as fuel. The performance of a TME is determined
by the interaction of the magnetic field between a permanent magnet and a
thermomagnetic material.

• The thermomagnetic effect is based on the effect of heat on the magnetic properties
of ferromagnetic materials. These materials undergo a sharp phase change near the
transition temperature. The thermomagnetic material undergoes a cyclic phase
change from a magnetic state to a non-magnetic state under changing temperature
conditions.
TMEs are also known as: Curie wheels, Curie-motors, Pyromagnetic motors
Hybrid thermomagnetic oscillator for cooling and direct waste heat conversion to electricity
The Nernst effect is the transverse electric field produced by a longitudinal thermal gradient in
the presence of a magnetic field

The Nernst device needs only one material and

eliminates the complex electrical connections
required in the Seebeck device, especially at the hot
side. B, magnetic field; E, electrical field; ∇T,
temperature gradient.
Forcing electrons to flow perpendicularly to a heat flow requires an external magnetic field – this is known
as the Nernst effect. In a permanently magnetized material (a ferromagnet), an anomalous Nernst effect (ANE)
exists that can generate electricity from heat even without a magnetic field.