Types of ecosystem:

Terrestrial (forest, grass land,

desert etc.) and Aquatic (pond, lake,
wetland, river, estuary etc.)
Artificialecosystem/man made
ecosystem:
 Crop field, garden, aquarium etc.
 Ecosystem – structure and function:
Interaction of abiotic and biotic
components result in a physical structure
that is characteristic for each type of
ecosystem. Thus, the important structural
features of an ecosystem are:
 Species composition

 Stratification (vertical distribution of

different species occupying different
levels) .E.g. tree occupy top vertical strata
or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and
herbs and grasses at the bottom layers.
The functions of ecosystem are:
Productivity.
Decomposition.
Energy flow.
Nutrient cycling.
Productivity:

The rate of biomass production is called

productivity and is expressed in g-2/yr-1
or (Kcal m-2) yr-1.Primary production is
defined as the amount of biomass or
organic matter produced per unit area
over a time period by plants during
photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms
of weight (g-2) or energy (Kcal m-2).
Productivity is of two types GPP (gross
primary productivity) and NPP (net
primary productivity).
 Gross primary productivity of an
ecosystem is the rate of production
of organic matter during
photosynthesis. A considerable
amount of GPP is utilised by plants in
respiration. Gross primary
productivity minus respiration losses
(R) is the net primary productivity
(NPP) i.e. GPP-R=NPP. Net primary
productivity is the available biomass
for the consumption of heterotrops.
(herbivores and decomposers)
 Secondary productivity:
 It
is defined as the rate of formation of
new organic matter by consumers.
Factors on which primary
productivity depends:
 Presence of plant species in a particular
area.
 Variety of environmental factors.
 Availability of nutrients.
 Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
The annual net primary productivity
of the whole biosphere is
approximately 170 billion tons (dry
wt.) of organic matter and of ocean is
only 55 billion tons.
Decomposition:
The process of breaking down of
complex organic matter into inorganic
substance like carbon dioxide, water
and nutrients is called decomposition.
The raw material for decomposition
is dead leaves, bark, flowers, and
dead remains of animals including
faecal matter. This is also called
detritus.
 Different steps in the process of
decomposition are:
 Fragmentation:Detritivores (earthworm)
break down detritus into smaller
particles called fragmentation.
 Leaching: Water soluble inorganic
nutrients go down into the soil horizon
and get precipitated as unavailable salt
by the process of leaching.
 Catabolism: Bacterial and fungal
enzymes degrade detritus into simpler
inorganic substances by the process of
catabolism.
Humification: It leads to
accumulation of a dark coloured
amorphous substance called humus
which serves as a reservoir of
nutrients.
Mineralisation: The humus is
further degraded by some microbes
and release of inorganic nutrients by
the process of mineralisation.
 Factors on which decomposition depends:
 Chemical composition of detritus.
 Climatic factors (temperature and soil
moisture)
 Rate of decomposition is slow if detritus is
rich in lignin and chitin.
 Rate of decomposition is fast if detritus is
rich in nitrogen and water soluble substance
like sugars.
 Warm and moist environment favours
decomposition.
 Low temperature inhibits decomposition.
Energy flow:
The transfer of energy from one
trophic level to other is called energy
flow. It obeys the 2nd law of
thermodynamics.
Food chain: Who eats whom is the
food chain
Types of food chain: Grazing
food chain and detritus food chain.
Grazing food chain (GFC):
Starts with producers that captures
solar energy and perform
photosynthesis. E.g. Grass(producer)
Goat (primary consumer)
Man(secondary consumer)
 Detritus food chain (DFC): It begins
with dead organic matter and
decomposers mainly fungi and bacteria.
They are also called saprotrophs. In
terrestrial ecosystem a much larger
fraction of energy flow through DFC than
GFC.
 Standing crop: At each trophic level
there is certain mass of living material at
a particular time called standing crop.
The standing crop is measured as the
mass of living organisms (biomass) or the
number in a unit area.
Food web: Food web is a network of
food chains which become
interconnected at various trophic
levels so as to form a number of
feeding connec tions amongst
different organisms of a biotic
community.
10%law: In a community, each food
chain, in fact represents step wise
transfer of food (energy).
 When green plants are eaten by
herbivores, a great deal of energy is
lost as heat to the environment in
accordance with the second law of
thermodynamics. On an average 10%
of the food (energy) is turned into
the body of herbivores. In the same
way, 10% of total energy available to
the herbivores is made available for
the next level of consumers. This is
called 10% law.
 Ecologicalpyramid:
The base of pyramid is broad and it
narrows down at the apex. It can be
expressed in terms of food or energy
relationship between organisms at
different trophic level. Thus, relationship
is expressed in terms of number, biomass
or energy. The base of each pyramid
represents the producers or the first
trophic level while the apex represents
tertiary or top level consumer. Ecological
pyramids may be pyramid of number,
pyramid of bio mass and pyramid of
energy.
 Ecologicalsuccession:
The gradual and fairly predictable change in
the species composition of a given area is
called ecological succession. During
succession some species colonise an area
and their population become more numerous,
where as population of other species decline
and even disappear. The entire sequence of
communities that successively change in a
given area are called sere(s). Thus,
succession is a process that starts where no
living organisms are there. Ecological
succession may be primary succession or
secondary succession.
Primary succession: Where no living
organisms are there. E.g. cooled lava,
bare rock, newly created pond or
reservoir.
Secondary succession: The area
where due to some reason it lost all
the living organisms that existed
there. E.g. Abandoned farm lands,
burned or cut forest, lands that have
been flooded. Secondary succession
is faster than primary succession.
Succession of plants:
Hydrarch succession: Takes place in
wetter areas and the successional
series progress from hydric to mesic
conditions.
Xerarch succession: Takes place in
dry areas and the series progress
from xeric to mesic condition.
Thus, both the succession leads to
medium water conditions (mesic),
neither too dry (xeric) nor too wet
(hydric).
 Pioneer species: The species that invade a
bare area are called pioneer species.
 E.g. Xeric to mesic: On bare rock

Lichen(pioneer species)
Bryophytes Bigger plant
Stable climax forest community is formed.
 E.g. Hydric to mesic: Water
Phytoplankton (pioneer species)
Free floating angiosperms By rooted
hydrophytes Sedges
Grasses Trees Stable climax
forest is formed.
 Nutrient cycling:
The movement of nutrient elements through
the various components of an ecosystem is
called nutrient cycling. It is also called
biogeochemical cycle. Nutrient cycles are of two
types: Gaseous (nitrogen and carbon) and
sedimentary (sulphur, phosphorus)
 Factors which regulate the rate of release of
nutrients into the atmosphere:
 Soil.

 Moisture.

 pH.

 Temperature.
 Ecosystem- Carbon cycle:
(Fig. 14.6) Carbon cycling occurs through
atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead
organisms. It has been estimated that 4x1013 kg
of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through
photosynthesis annually. A considerable amount
of carbon in the form of CO2 is returns to the
atmosphere by respiration of producers and
consumers. Decomposers also play an important
role in the contribution of carbon in the form of
CO2 to atmosphere. Burning of wood, forest fire
and combustion of organic matter, fossil fuel,
and volcanic activities are also sources for
releasing CO2 in the atmosphere.
 Ecosystem- Phosphorus cycle:
(Fig. 14.7) Phosphorus is a major
constituent of biological membranes,
nucleic acids and cellular energy transfer
systems. Many animals require this in
large quantities to make shells, bones and
teeth. The natural reservoir of
phosphorus is rock that contains
phosphorus in the form of phosphates.
Due to weathering of rocks, minute
amount of phosphates dissolves in soil
solutions which are absorbed by the roots
of the plants.
 Herbivores and other animals get these
from plants. The waste products and the
dead organisms are decomposed by
phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing
phosphorus. Two major and important
difference between carbon and
phosphorus cycle:
 Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus
through rain fall are much smaller than
carbon inputs.
 Gaseous exchanges of phosphorus
between organisms and environment are
negligible.
Ecosystem services:
The products of ecosystem
processes are named as ecosystem
services. Healthy forest ecosystems
purify air and water, prevents
droughts and floods, cycle nutrients,
generate fertile soil, provide wild life
habitats, maintain biodiversity,
pollinate crops, provide storage site
for carbon and also provide
aesthetic, cultural and spiritual
values.
THANKS