TR1005 - Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
Fundamentals of fluid mechanics
Bruce R. Munson, Theodore H. Okiishi, Wade W. Huebsch, Alric P. Rothmayer—7th edition
Lecturer: Vuong Thi Hong Nhi
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HO CHI MINH CITY FACULTY OF TRANSPORTATION
HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
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2.1. Pressure at a Point
Pressure is the normal force per unit area.
The equations of motion (Newton’s second law) in the y and z directions are:
The specific weight
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2.1. Pressure at a Point
We take the limit as and approach zero (while maintaining the angle )
The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of direction as long
as there are no shearing stresses present. This important result is known as Pascal’s law.
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2.2. Basic Equation for Pressure Field
There are two types of forces acting on this element:
surface forces due to the pressure and a body force
equal to the weight of the element.
The resultant surface force acting on a small fluid
element depends only on the pressure gradient if
there are no shearing stresses present.
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2.2. Basic Equation for Pressure Field
Vector form the pressure gradient
The symbol is the gradient or
“del” vector operator
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2.2. Basic Equation for Pressure Field
Since the z axis is vertical, the
weight of the element is
Newton’s second law
The general equation of motion for a fluid
in which there are no shearing stresses.
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2.3. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
For liquids or gases at rest,
• The pressure does not depend on x or y.
• The pressure gradient in the vertical direction at any point in a fluid
depends only on the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
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2.3. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
For incompressible, density is constant
h= 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 1
h is called the pressure head and is interpreted as the height of a column
of fluid of specific weight required to give a pressure difference .
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2.3. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
For compressible
The equation of state for an ideal (or perfect) gas is
We assume that the temperature has a constant value over the range to
(isothermal conditions)
This equation provides the desired pressure–elevation relationship for an isothermal layer.
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2.3. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
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2.3. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
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2.3. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
EXAMPLE 2.2: Incompressible and Isothermal Pressure–Depth Variations
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2.3. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
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2.4. Standard Atmosphere
• The standard atmosphere is an idealized representation of mean conditions in the
earth’s atmosphere.
• Thus, a “standard atmosphere” has been determined that can be used in the design
of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft and in comparing their performance under
standard conditions.
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2.4. Standard Atmosphere
In the troposphere, which extends to an altitude of
about 11 km the temperature variation is of the form
where is the temperature at sea level and is the lapse
rate (the rate of change of temperature with elevation).
For the standard atmosphere in the troposphere,
or 0.00357 R/ft.
where is the absolute pressure at z = 0, R is the gas
constant, R = 286.9 J/kg.K or 1716 ft.lb/slug.R.
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2.4. Standard Atmosphere
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2.5. Measurement of Pressure
• The pressure at a point within a fluid mass will be designated as either an absolute pressure or a gage pressure.
• Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum (absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure is measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure.
• Gage pressure of zero corresponds to a pressure that is equal to the local atmospheric pressure.
• Absolute pressures are always positive, but gage pressures can be either positive or negative depending on
whether the pressure is above atmospheric pressure (a positive value) or below atmospheric pressure (a negative
value).
• A negative gage pressure is also referred to as a suction or vacuum pressure.
For example, 10 psi (abs) could be expressed as -4.7 psi
(gage), if the local atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi, or
alternatively 4.7 psi suction or 4.7 psi vacuum.
Pressure is a force per unit area
The units in the BG system are lb/ft2 (psf) or lb/in2 (psi).
The units in the SI system N/m2 (Pa)
Standard atmospheric pressure can be expressed as 760
mm Hg (abs).
In this text, pressures will be assumed to be gage pressures
unless specifically designated absolute.
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2.5. Measurement of Pressure
Barometer (Áp kế)
The measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually
accomplished with a mercury barometer.
The column of mercury will come to an equilibrium position
where its weight plus the force due to the vapor pressure
(which develops in the space above the column) balances the
force due to the atmospheric pressure.
is small
is the specific weight of mercury
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2.5. Measurement of Pressure
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2.6. Manometry
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2.6. Manometry
If A does contain a gas, the contribution of
the gas column, is almost always negligible
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2.6. Manometry
EXAMPLE 2.4: Simple U-Tube Manometer
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2.6. Manometry
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2.6. Manometry
EXAMPLE 2.5 U-Tube Manometer
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2.6. Manometry
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2.6. Manometry
The U-tube manometer is also widely used to
measure the difference in pressure between
two containers or two points in a given system.
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2.6. Manometry
For relatively small angles the differential
reading along the inclined tube can be made
large even for small pressure differences.
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2.7. Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices
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2.8. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
• For fluids at rest we know that the force must be perpendicular to the surface since there are no
shearing stresses present.
• Note that if atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the bottom, as is illustrated, the resultant
force on the bottom is simply due to the liquid in the tank
• The resultant force of a static fluid on a plane surface is due to the hydrostatic pressure
distribution on the surface.
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2.8. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
At any given depth, h, the force acting on dA is
and is perpendicular to the surface. Thus, the magnitude
of the resultant force can be found by summing these
differential forces over the entire surface.
is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the
centroid of the area.
The magnitude of the resultant fluid force is equal to the
pressure acting at the centroid of the area multiplied by
the total area.
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2.8. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
Location of hydrostatic force on a plane surface
is the second moment of the area with respect
to an axis passing through its centroid and
parallel to the x axis.
is the product of inertia with respect to an
orthogonal coordinate system passing through
the centroid of the area and formed by a
translation of the x–y coordinate system.
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2.8. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
EXAMPLE 2.6 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Circular Surface
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2.8. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
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2.9. Pressure Prism
The average pressure occurs at the depth h/2 and,
therefore, the resultant force acting on the
rectangular area A = bh is
• The base of this “volume” in pressure-area space is
the plane surface of interest, and its altitude at each
point is the pressure. This volume is called the
pressure prism.
• The magnitude of the resultant force acting on the
rectangular surface is equal to the volume of the
pressure prism.
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2.9. Pressure Prism
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2.9. Pressure Prism
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2.10. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
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2.11. Buoyancy and Stability When a stationary body is completely submerged in a
fluid, the resultant fluid force acting on the body is
called the buoyant force.
If the specific weight of the fluid is constant
• Buoyant force passes through the
where is the specific weight of the fluid and is the volume of
centroid of the displaced volume.
the body.
• The point through which the
Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force has a
buoyant force acts is called the
magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
center of buoyancy.
body and is directed vertically upward.
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2.11. Buoyancy and Stability
• A body is said to be in a stable
equilibrium position if, when displaced,
it returns to its equilibrium position.
• It is in an unstable equilibrium position
if, when displaced (even slightly), it
moves to a new equilibrium position.
• The centers of buoyancy and gravity
do not necessarily coincide.
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2.11. Buoyancy and Stability
An immersed neutrally buoyant body is
(a)stable if the center of gravity G is directly below the
center of buoyancy B of the body,
(b)neutrally stable if G and B are coincident,
(c)unstable if G is directly above B.
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2.11. Buoyancy and Stability
• For floating bodies the stability problem is more
complicated.
• As is shown in Fig. 2.27, a floating body such as a
barge that rides low in the water can be stable
even though the center of gravity lies above the
center of buoyancy.
• However, for the relatively tall, slender body
shown in Fig. 2.28, a small rotational
displacement can cause the buoyant force and the
weight to form an overturning couple as
illustrated.
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2.11. Buoyancy and Stability
• A floating body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus the center of gravity G is below
the centroid B of the body, or if the metacenter M is above point G. However, the body is
unstable if point M is below point G.
• Metacentric height GM: The distance between the center of gravity G and the metacenter M-
the intersection point of the lines of action of the buoyant force through the body before and
after rotation.
• The length of the metacentric height GM above G is a measure of the stability: the larger it is,
the more stable is the floating body.
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2.12. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
The general equation of motion
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2.12. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
Linear Motion
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2.12. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
Rigid-Body Rotation
In terms of cylindrical coordinates the pressure
gradient can be expressed as
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2.12. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
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2.12. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
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2.12. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
EXAMPLE 2.12 Free Surface
Shape of Liquid in a Rotating Tank
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2.12. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
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Summary
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