Amirkabir University of

Technology
(Tehran Polytechnic)
Department of Computer Engineering and Information
Technology

Operating Systems Course

Hamid R. Zarandi
[email protected]

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 Operating Systems

Textbooks

Silberschatz et. al. Operating System Concepts

9th Edition, Wiley, 2013.

Stallings, Operating Systems: Internal and Design Principles

9th Edition, Pearson, 2015.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems

4th Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2014.

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 Operating Systems

Course highlights & grading

Grading details Highlights
o Mid-term (6) o What Operating Systems Do
o Final (9) o Computer-System Organization
o Homeworks (2) o Computer-System Architecture
o Project(s) o Operating-System Structure
(2)
o Operating-System Operations
o Presence (1) o Process Management
o Memory Management
TA o Storage Management
o Amirhossein Jhale Mehrabi o Protection and Security
o Mahshid Shiri o Kernel Data Structures
o Computing Environments
o Open-Source Operating Systems

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 Operating Systems

OS topics

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 Operating Systems

Introductions to Operating Systems

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 Operating Systems

What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware
o User can execute programs convenient & efficient

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 Operating Systems

What operating systems do?

 Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance

o Don’t care about resource utilization
 But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all users happy
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated resources but frequently use
shared resources from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery life
 Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded computers in devices and
automobiles

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 Operating Systems

Operating system definition

OS is a resource allocator

o Manages all resources
o Decides between conflicting requests for efficient
and fair resource use

OS is a control program

o Controls execution of programs to prevent errors
and improper use of the computer

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 Operating Systems

No uniform definition!
No universally accepted definition!
“The one program running at all times on the computer” is the
kernel.

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 Operating Systems

Computer startup
Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
o Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
o Initializes all aspects of system
o Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

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 Operating Systems

Computer system organization

 Computer-system operation
o One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to
shared memory
o Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles

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 Operating Systems

Computer system, basic elements

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 Operating Systems

Computer-system operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type

Each device controller has a local buffer

CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers

I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing an
interrupt

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 Operating Systems

OS is interrupt driven!

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Interrupts

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Control flow (w/wo interrupts)

waiting

OS

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Handling interrupts

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Interrupt handling

PIC sends the

interrupt
address

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Multiple interrupts

Disabling interrupt can be done to prevent future ones.

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Common functions of interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through

the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the service routines

Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction

A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error

or a user request

An operating system is interrupt driven

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 Operating Systems

Interrupt handling

The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers and
the program counter

Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:

o polling
o vectored interrupt system

Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for each
type of interrupt

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 Operating Systems

Interrupt timeline

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Storage Definitions and Notation Review

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 Operating Systems

Storage definitions and notation review

The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up
of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and
64-bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer
executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured

and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).

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 Operating Systems

Storage structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
o Random access
o Typically volatile

Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile

storage capacity

Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording
material
o Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
o The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer

Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile

o Various technologies
o Becoming more popular

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Storage hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
o Speed
o Cost
o Volatility

Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory can
be viewed as a cache for secondary storage

Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O

o Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel

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 Operating Systems

Storage-device hierarchy

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Performance of various levels of storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

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 Operating Systems

Migration of data “A” from disk to register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no matter

where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware such

that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
o Several copies of a datum can exist
o Various solutions covered in Chapter 17

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Cache memory

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DMA: direct memory access

IO operations
o Programmed IO (polling)
o Interrupt-driven
o DMA
 Whether a read or write is
requested
 The address of the I/O device
 The starting location in
memory to read data/write
data
 The number of words

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 Operating Systems

Computer System Architecture

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 Operating Systems

Computer-system architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor
o Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

o Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
o Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale – multiprocessors vs. multiple single processor
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
o Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specie task (boss-worker).
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks

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 Operating Systems

Symmetric multiprocessing architecture

 Multiprocessors memory access divisions:

o UMA (uniform memory access)
o NUMA (non-uniform memory access)

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Symmetric multiprocessing organization

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A dual-core design

 Multi-chip and multicore

 Systems containing all chips
o Chassis containing multiple
separate systems
 Advantage:
o Faster communications
o Less power consumption

 Disadvantage:
o Performance gap of CPU utilization by
software

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 Operating Systems

Intel core i7-990X block diagram

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Blade servers

Multiple processor boards, I/O boards, and

networking boards are placed in the same
chassis.

Each blade-processor
o boots independently
o runs its own OS!

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 Operating Systems

Clustered systems
 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working
together (loosely-coupled systems)
 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
o Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-
standby mode
o Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running
applications, monitoring each other

 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)

o Applications must be written to use parallelization

 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid

conflicting operations

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 Operating Systems

Operating System
Structure

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 Operating Systems

Operating system structure

Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
o Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
o Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
o A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
o One job selected and run via job scheduling
o When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact
with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing
o Response time should be < 1 second
o Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
o If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
o If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run

o Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

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 Operating Systems

Memory layout for multiprogrammed system

 Job pool on a disk!

o Physical memory
o Virtual memory

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 Operating Systems

System utilization example

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 Operating Systems

Increasing system utilization example

OS idle state is done by HLT assembly instruction (x86 opcode 0xF4)

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 Operating Systems

Operating-system operations
Interrupt driven (hardware and software)

o Hardware interrupt by one of the devices

o Software interrupt (exception or trap):

 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system

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 Operating Systems

Operating-system operations (cont.)

Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components
o User mode and kernel mode
o Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel
mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
o i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs

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 Operating Systems

Dual mode processors

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 Operating Systems

Time management

Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources (Watchdog timer)

o Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
o Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
o Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
o When counter zero generate an interrupt
o Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds
allotted time

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 Operating Systems

Process management

 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system. Program is a passive
entity, process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
o CPU, memory, I/O, files
o Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next instruction to
execute
o Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system running concurrently
on one or more CPUs
o Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

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 Operating Systems

Process management activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection
with process management:

Creating and deleting both user and system processes

Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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 Operating Systems

Memory management
 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory

 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in memory.

 Memory management determines what is in memory and when

o Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

 Memory management activities

o Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
o Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of memory
o Allocating and de-allocating memory space as needed

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 Operating Systems

Storage management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
o Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
o Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate, access method (sequential
or random)

File-System management
o Files usually organized into directories
o Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
o OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

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 Operating Systems

Mass-storage management
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that must be kept for
a “long” period of time

 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms

 OS activities
o Free-space management
o Storage allocation
o Disk scheduling

 Some storage need not be fast

o Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
o Still must be managed – by OS or applications
o Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)

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 Operating Systems

I/O subsystem

One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the user

I/O subsystem responsible for:

o Memory management of I/O including
 buffering (storing data temporarily while it is being transferred)
 caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for performance)
 spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs)
o General device-driver interface
o Drivers for specific hardware devices

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 Operating Systems

Protection and Security

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 Operating Systems

Protection and security

Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to
resources defined by the OS

Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks

o Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of service

Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do what
o User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one per user
o User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access control
o Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls managed, then
also associated with each process, file
o Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights

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 Operating Systems

Kernel data structures

Many similar to standard programming data structures
Singly linked list

Doubly linked list

Circular linked list

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 Operating Systems

Kernel data structures

 Binary search tree
left <= right
o Search performance is O(n)
o Balanced binary search tree is O(lg n)
 Example
o Linux CPU-scheduling algorithm

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 Operating Systems

Kernel data structures

 Hash function can create a hash map
o Collision problem

Example: username, password

 Bitmap – string of n binary digits representing the status of n items (0011010111001010)

o Example: Disk block availability

 Linux data structures defined in

include files <linux/list.h>, <linux/kfifo.h>, <linux/rbtree.h>

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 Operating Systems

Computing Environment

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (traditional)

Stand-alone general purpose machines

But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e., the Internet)

Portals provide web access to internal systems

Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals

Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks

Networking becoming ubiquitous (IoT)– even home systems use firewalls

to protect home computers from Internet attacks

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (Mobile)

 Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc

 What is the functional difference between them and a “traditional” laptop?

 Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope)

 Allows new types of apps like augmented reality

 Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for connectivity

 Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (distributed)

Distributed computing
o Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems networked together
 Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Personal Area Network (PAN)
o Network Operating System
 Provides features between systems across network
 Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages
 Illusion of a single system

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (Client-Server)

Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to client to request services (i.e.,
database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (Peer-to-Peer)

Another model of distributed system

P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
o No bottleneck server!
o Instead all nodes are considered peers
o May each act as client, server or both
o Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with central lookup service on
network, or
 Broadcast request for service and respond to requests
for service via discovery protocol
o Examples include Napster and Gnutella, Voice
over IP (VoIP) such as Skype

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (Virtualization)

Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes

o Vast and growing industry

Emulation used when source CPU type different from target type (i.e. PowerPC
to Intel x86)
o Generally slowest method
o When computer language not compiled to native code – Interpretation

Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest OSes also natively
compiled
o Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running applications, all on native WinXP
host OS
o VMM (virtual machine manager) provides virtualization services

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (Virtualization)

Virtualization vs. Emulation (both are SW)

o OS to OS vs. CPU to CPU
Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple OSes for exploration
or compatibility
o Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest
o Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple systems
o QA testing applications without having multiple systems
o Executing and managing compute environments within data centers

VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
o There is no general purpose host then (VMware, ESX and Citrix XenServer)

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (Virtualization)

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (Cloud Computing)

 Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network

 Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base for it functionality.
o Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines, petabytes of storage
available across the Internet, pay based on usage
 Many types
o Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
o Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
o Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
o Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via the Internet (i.e., word
processor)
o Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use via the Internet (i.e.,
a database server)
o Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over Internet (i.e., storage
available for backup use)

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (Cloud Computing)

Cloud computing environments composed of traditional OSes, plus VMMs, plus

cloud management tools
o Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
o Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications

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 Operating Systems

Computing environments (Real-Time Embedded Systems)

 Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers

o Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS, real-time
OS
o Use expanding

 Many other special computing environments as well

o Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS

 Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints

o Processing must be done within constraint (soft, firm, hard)
o Correct operation only if constraints met

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Open-source operating systems

 Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just binary closed-source

 Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM) movement

 Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)

 Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X), and many more

 Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows), Virtualbox (open source and free on
many platforms - http://www.virtualbox.com)
o Use to run guest operating systems for exploration
 All book materials are available at: www.os-book.com

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 Operating Systems

Questions?

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