Utility

Preferences - A Reminder


x y: x is preferred strictly to y.
 x  y: x and y are equally preferred.
 x  y: x is preferred at least as
~
much as is y.
 Preferences - A Reminder
 Completeness: For any two bundles
x and y it is always possible to state
either that
xy
or that
~
y  x.
~
 Preferences - A Reminder
 Transitivity: If
x is at least as preferred as y, and
y is at least as preferred as z, then
x is at least as preferred as z; i.e.

x  y and y  z x  z.
~ ~ ~
 Utility Functions
 A preference relation that is
complete, transitive and continuous
can be represented by a continuous
utility function.
 Continuity means that small changes
to a consumption bundle cause only
small changes to the preference
level.
 Utility Functions
 A utility function U(x) represents a
preference relation  ~ if and only if:

x’ x” U(x’) > U(x”)

x’  x” U(x’) < U(x”)

x’  x” U(x’) = U(x”).
 Utility Functions
 Utility is an ordinal (i.e. ordering)
concept.
 E.g. if U(x) = 6 and U(y) = 2 then
bundle x is strictly preferred to
bundle y. But x is not preferred three
times as much as is y.
Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
 Consider the bundles (4,1), (2,3) and
(2,2).

 Suppose (2,3) (4,1)  (2,2).
 Assign to these bundles any
numbers that preserve the
preference ordering;
e.g. U(2,3) = 6 > U(4,1) = U(2,2) = 4.
 Call these numbers utility levels.
Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
 An indifference curve contains
equally preferred bundles.
 Equal preference  same utility level.
 Therefore, all bundles in an
indifference curve have the same
utility level.
Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
 So the bundles (4,1) and (2,2) are in
the indiff. curve with utility level U
 But the bundle (2,3) is in the indiff.
curve with utility level U  6.
 On an indifference curve diagram,
this preference information looks as
follows:
Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves

x2 (2,3)

(2,2)  (4,1)

U6
U4

x1
 Utility Functions
 There is no unique utility function
representation of a preference
relation.
 Suppose U(x1,x2) = x1x2 represents a
preference relation.
 Again consider the bundles (4,1),
(2,3) and (2,2).
 Utility Functions
 U(x1,x2) = x1x2, so

U(2,3) = 6 > U(4,1) = U(2,2) = 4;


that is, (2,3) (4,1)  (2,2).
 Utility Functions

 U(x1,x2) = x1x2 (2,3) (4,1)  (2,2).
 Define V = U2.
 Utility Functions

 U(x1,x2) = x1x2 (2,3) (4,1)  (2,2).
 Define V = U2.
 Then V(x1,x2) = x12x22 and
V(2,3) = 36 > V(4,1) = V(2,2) = 16
so again

(2,3) (4,1) (2,2).
 V preserves the same order as U and so
represents the same preferences.
 Utility Functions

 U(x1,x2) = x1x2 (2,3) (4,1)  (2,2).
 Define W = 2U + 10.
 Utility Functions

 U(x1,x2) = x1x2 (2,3) (4,1)  (2,2).
 Define W = 2U + 10.
 Then W(x1,x2) = 2x1x2+10 so
W(2,3) = 22 > W(4,1) = W(2,2) = 18. Again,
(2,3) (4,1)  (2,2).

 W preserves the same order as U and V
and so represents the same preferences.
 Utility Functions
 If
– U is a utility function that
represents a preference relation  ~
and
– f is a strictly increasing function,
 then V = f(U) is also a utility function
representing  .
~
 Goods, Bads and Neutrals
 A good is a commodity unit which
increases utility (gives a more preferred
bundle).
 A bad is a commodity unit which
decreases utility (gives a less preferred
bundle).
 A neutral is a commodity unit which does
not change utility (gives an equally
preferred bundle).
 Goods, Bads and Neutrals
Utility
Utility
function
Units of Units of
water are water are
goods bads

x’ Water
Around x’ units, a little extra water is a neutral.
 Some Other Utility Functions
and Their Indifference Curves
 Instead of U(x1,x2) = x1x2 consider

V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2.

What do the indifference curves for

this “perfect substitution” utility
function look like?
Perfect Substitution Indifference
Curves
x2
x1 + x2 = 5
13
x1 + x2 = 9
9
x1 + x2 = 13
5
V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2.

5 9 13 x1
Perfect Substitution Indifference
Curves
x2
x1 + x2 = 5
13
x1 + x2 = 9
9
x1 + x2 = 13
5
V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2.

5 9 13 x1
All are linear and parallel.
 Some Other Utility Functions
and Their Indifference Curves
 Instead of U(x1,x2) = x1x2 or
V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2, consider

W(x1,x2) = min{x1,x2}.

What do the indifference curves for

this “perfect complementarity” utility
function look like?
 Perfect Complementarity
Indifference Curves
x2
45o
W(x1,x2) = min{x1,x2}

8 min{x1,x2} = 8
5 min{x1,x2} = 5
3 min{x1,x2} = 3

3 5 8 x1
 Perfect Complementarity
Indifference Curves
x2
45o
W(x1,x2) = min{x1,x2}

8 min{x1,x2} = 8
5 min{x1,x2} = 5
3 min{x1,x2} = 3

3 5 8 x1
All are right-angled with vertices on a ray
from the origin.
 Some Other Utility Functions
and Their Indifference Curves
 Any utility function of the form

U(x1,x2) = x1a x2b

with a > 0 and b > 0 is called a Cobb-

Douglas utility function.
 E.g. U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x21/2 (a = b = 1/2)
V(x1,x2) = x1 x23 (a = 1, b = 3)
 Cobb-Douglas Indifference
x2 Curves
All curves are hyperbolic,
asymptoting to, but never
touching any axis.

x1
 Marginal Utilities
 Marginal means “incremental”.
 The marginal utility of commodity i is
the rate-of-change of total utility as
the quantity of commodity i
consumed changes; i.e.
U
MU i 
 xi
 Marginal Utilities
 E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then

 U 1  1/ 2 2
MU1   x1 x2
 x1 2
 Marginal Utilities
 E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then

 U 1  1/ 2 2
MU1   x1 x2
 x1 2
 Marginal Utilities
 E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then

U 1/ 2
MU 2   2 x1 x2
 x2
 Marginal Utilities
 E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then

U 1/ 2
MU 2   2 x1 x2
 x2
 Marginal Utilities
 So, if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x22 then
 U 1  1/ 2 2
MU1   x1 x2
 x1 2
U 1/ 2
MU 2   2 x1 x2
 x2
 Marginal Utilities and Marginal
Rates-of-Substitution
 The general equation for an
indifference curve is
U(x1,x2)  k, a constant.
Totally differentiating this identity gives
U U
dx1  dx2  0
 x1  x2
Marginal Utilities and Marginal
Rates-of-Substitution
U U
dx1  dx2  0
 x1  x2
rearranged is
U U
dx2   dx1
 x2  x1
Marginal Utilities and Marginal
Rates-of-Substitution
And U U
dx2   dx1
 x2  x1
rearranged is
d x2  U /  x1
 .
d x1  U /  x2
This is the MRS.
Marg. Utilities & Marg. Rates-of-
Substitution; An example
 Suppose U(x1,x2) = x1x2. Then
U
 (1)( x2 )  x2
 x1
U
 ( x1 )(1)  x1
 x2
d x2  U /  x1 x2
so MRS    .
d x1  U /  x2 x1
Marg. Utilities & Marg. Rates-of-
Substitution; An example
x2
x2 U(x1,x2) = x1x2; MRS  
x1
8 MRS(1,8) = - 8/1 = -8
6 MRS(6,6) = - 6/6 = -1.

U = 36
U=8
1 6 x1
 Monotonic Transformations &
Marginal Rates-of-Substitution
 Applying a monotonic transformation
to a utility function representing a
preference relation simply creates
another utility function representing
the same preference relation.
 What happens to marginal rates-of-
substitution when a monotonic
transformation is applied?
 Monotonic Transformations &
Marginal Rates-of-Substitution
 For U(x1,x2) = x1x2 the MRS = - x2/x1.
 Create V = U2; i.e. V(x1,x2) = x12x22.
What is the MRS for V?
2
 V /  x1 2 x1 x2 x2
MRS    
 V /  x2 2
2 x1 x2 x1
which is the same as the MRS for U.
 Monotonic Transformations &
Marginal Rates-of-Substitution
 More generally, if V = f(U) where f is a
strictly increasing function, then
 V /  x1 f  (U )   U / x1
MRS   
 V /  x2 f '(U )   U / x2
 U /  x1
 .
 U /  x2
So MRS is unchanged by a positive
monotonic transformation.