Microbial Metabolism

Microbial Metabolism
A. Basic Concepts of Metabolism
B. Glycolytic Pathways
C. Fermentation
D. Respiration
E. Photosynthesis
F. Chemolithotrophy
 An Overview metabolism
metabolism ：

the sum total of all chemical reactions occurring in the cell

catabolism
metabolism
anabolism

catabolism
Complex molecules Simple molecules ATP [H]
anabolism
 A. Basic Concepts

Definitions
– Metabolism: The processes of catabolism
and anabolism
– Catabolism: The processes by which a
living organism obtains its energy and raw
materials from nutrients
– Anabolism: The processes by which
energy and raw materials are used to build
macromolecules and cellular structures
(biosynthesis)
 A. Basic Concepts

Reduction and Oxidation

– An atom becomes more reduced when it
undergoes a chemical reaction in which it
Gains electrons
By bonding to a less electronegative atom
And often this occurs when the atom becomes
bonded to a hydrogen
 A. Basic Concepts
Reduction and Oxidation
– An atom becomes more oxidized when it
undergoes a chemical reaction in which it
Loses electrons
By bonding to a more electronegative atom
And often this occurs when the atom becomes
bonded to an oxygen
 A. Basic Concepts
Reduction and Oxidation
– In metabolic pathways, we are often
concerned with the oxidation or reduction of
carbon.
– Reduced forms of carbon (e.g. hydrocarbons,
methane, fats, carbohydrates, alcohols) carry
a great deal of potential chemical energy
stored in their bonds.
– Oxidized forms of carbon (e.g. ketones,
aldehydes, carboxylic acids, carbon dioxide)
carry very little potential chemical energy in
their bonds.
 A. Basic Concepts
Reduction and Oxidation
– Reduction and oxidation always occur
together. In a reduction-oxidation reaction
(redox reaction), one substance gets reduced,
and another substance gets oxidized. The
thing that gets oxidized is called the electron
donor, and the thing that gets reduced is
called the electron acceptor.
 A. Basic Concepts

Enzymatic Pathways for Metabolism

– Metabolic reactions take place in a step-
wise fashion in which the atoms of the raw
materials are rearranged, often one at a
time, until the formation of the final product
takes place.
– Each step requires its own enzyme.
– The sequence of enzymatically-catalyzed
steps from a starting raw material to final
end products is called an enzymatic
pathway (or metabolic pathway)
 A. Basic Concepts

Cofactors for Redox Reactions

– Enzymes that catalyze redox reactions
typically require a cofactor to “shuttle”
electrons from one part of the metabolic
pathway to another part.
– There are two main redox cofactors: NAD
and FAD. These are (relatively) small
organic molecules in which part of the
structure can either be reduced (e.g.,
accept a pair of electrons) or oxidized (e.g.,
donate a pair of electrons)
 A. Basic Concepts

Cofactors for Redox Reactions

NAD(oxidized) + H+ + Pair of electrons  NADH(reduced)

FAD(oxidized) + H+ + Pair of electrons  FADH(reduced)

NAD and FAD are present only in small

(catalytic) amounts – they cannot serve as the
final electron acceptor, but must be regenerated
(reoxidized) in order for metabolism to continue
 A. Basic Concepts

ATP: A “currency of energy” for many cellular

reactions
– ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. It is a
nucleotide with three phosphate groups linked in a
small chain.
– The last phosphate in the chain can be removed by
hydrolysis (the ATP becomes ADP, or adenosine
diphosphate).
This reaction is energetically favorable: it has a G°' of
about –7.5 kcal/mol
ATP + H2O ® ADP + Phosphate + Energy (7.5
 A. Basic Concepts

ATP
– ATP hydrolysis is used as an energy source
in many biological reactions that require
energy – for example, active transport in the
sodium-potassium pump
– During catabolism, energy released from the
oxidation of carbon is captured and used to
synthesize ATP from ADP and phosphate.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ®6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
ADP + Phosphate + Energy® ATP + H2O`
 Section 1 Energy Metabolism in Microbes

summarize

Organic Compounds Chemoheterotroph

Primary Sunlight
Photoheterotroph
A
ATP
Photoautotroph
Energy T
P
Inorganic Compounds
in Reduced State Chemoautotroph
 Chemoheterotroph biological oxidation and
energy Release

Process——Dehydrogenation, Giving Hydrogen and Accepting

Hydrogen (Electron)
Function——Releasing Energy (ATP), Engendering Reducing
Power [H] and Producing Intermediate Metabolites

The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate

biological
fermentation
oxidation
respiration （ aerobic or anaerobic respiration
）
 Metabolism Pathways

[Link]
1 The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate

Glocose——representative substrate of biological oxidation

Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway (Glycolysis)

Hexose Monophosphate Pathway
Entner-Doudoroff Pathway (KDPG Pathway)

PK (phosphoketolase) pathway
 B. Glycolytic Pathways
4 major glycolytic pathways found in different
bacteria:
– Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas pathway
“Classic” glycolysis
Found in almost all organisms
– Hexose monophosphate pathway
Also found in most organisms
Responsible for synthesis of pentose sugars used in
nucleotide synthesis
– Entner-Doudoroff pathway
Found in Pseudomonas and related genera
– Phosphoketolase pathway
Found in Bifidobacterium and Leuconostoc
1 ） Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway (EMP)
(Glycolysis, Hexose Diphosphate Pathway)
Ten steps
glucose pyruvate

with O2 ： connecte EMP pathway with TCA pathway ；

without O2 ： reduce some metabolism product, only energy-
yielding process.

generates ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation ：

（ 1 ） glyceraldehyde 1,3-phosphate  3-
phoshoglyceric acid + ATP ；
（ 2 ） PEP  pyruvate + ATP

C6H12O6 ＋ 2NAD+ ＋ 2ADP ＋ 2Pi→

2CH3COCOOH ＋ 2NADH ＋ 2H+ ＋ 2ATP ＋

 Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas
Pathway
This is also called Glycolysis or Fructose
Bisphophate Aldolase Pathway
Important reactions:
– Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose-6-
phosphate by ATP
– Cleavage of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to trioses
by a specific aldolase
– Structural rearrangements
– Oxidation-reduction and Pi assimilation
 EMP pathway

The enzyme fructose bisphosphate

aldolase is one of the most critical steps in
the pathway
In general, glycolysis in muscle tissue,
yeast and many bacterial species are
identical in terms of intermediates involved
Pyruvate is the last common intermediate
 The EM pathway

Symmetrical pathway

Amphibolic pathway

Highly regulated pathway

Inhibited by ATP
Inhibited by high levels of glucose-6-P
Inhibited by Ala, an intermediate synthesis
product from pyruvate.
 The Embden-Meyerhof Pathway
(EM, glycolysis)

It results in the formation of six of the critical biosynthetic

intermediates

Which ones?
 The EM pathway

It fails to provide some of the 12 key compounds.

Which ones?

Five carbon sugars required for DNA and RNA

formation.
Erythrose-4-P
NADPH, major source of reducing power in
biosynthesis.
2)Hexose Monophosphate Pathway
(HMP)
(Pentose Phosphate
Pathway,
Phosphogluconate Pathway,
Warburg-Dickens Pathway)

Uses pentoses
and NADPH

Operates with
glycolysis
Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Significance of this pathway:

– It produces pentose phosphates –
precursors to the ribose and deoxyribose in
nucleic acids
– It produces erythrose phosphate –
precursor to the aromatics amino acids
– NADPH is produced – major source of
electrons for biosynthesis
Pentose Phosphate Pathway

In this cycle, G-6-P is converted to ribulose-5-

phosphate and CO2.
Ribulose-5-phosphate is maintained in equilibrium
with ribose-5-phosphate and xylulose-5-phosphate
by isomerase and epimerase
Through a series of transketolase and
transaldolase reactions, three turns of cycle are
required to produce one triose phosphate (plus 3
CO2) from one hexose
 The Hexose Monophosphate (HM)
Pathway (pentose phosphate pathway)

It provides all the key intermediates not provided by the EM

pathway.
In one of the steps, this pathway produces
erythrose-4-P and glyceraldehyde-3-P that can get
into the EM pathway.

When the complete OP operates, the products

are:
-Carbon dioxide
-NADPH and intermediates of biosynthesis such
as erythrose-4-P and ribose-5-P.
Is there any ATP formed?

How does this pathway operate without generating any

energy?

Regulation

NADPH regulates the pathway.

fructose 6-phosphates ：
be converted to glucose 6-phosphates ， be returned to Pentose
Phosphate Pathway

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate ：
a. through EMP pthway ， be converted to pyruvate ， into TCA
pthway
b. converted to Hexose Phosphate, be returned to Pentose Phosphate
Pathway

The overall reaction ：

6 glucose 6-phosphates +12NADP++3H2O → 5 glucose 6-phosphates +
6CO2+12NADPH+12H++Pi
3) Entner-Doudoroff Pathway (KDPG Pathway)

1952, Entner-Doudoroff ： Pseudomonas saccharophila

process ： （ 4 septs ）
1 Glucose glucose 6-phosphates 6-phosphogluconate

6-phosphogluconate dehydratase
KDPG
2-oxo-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate aldolase

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate +
Produces NADPH and 1 ATPpyruvate
Does not involve glycolysis
Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, Agrobacterium
 Entner-Doudoroff Pathway

This pathway is absent in eukaryotes

This pathway is active in E. coli and many
other Gram negative bacteria
Two key enzymes: 6-phosphogluconate
dehydratase (edd; reaction 2) and 2-keto-
3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate aldolase
(eda; reaction 4)
 The Entner-Doudoroff Pathway
It may be considered an alternate hexose monophsphate pathway.

It provides a minimum of five of the critical biosynthetic

intermediates:
- glucose-6-P
- triose phosphate
- 3-phosphoglycerate
- phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP)
- pyruvate
 The Entner-Doudoroff Pathway
It begins the same as the HM pathway up to phosphogluconic acid.
Then, instead of being converted to pentose and carbon dioxide, it
is dehydrated yielding 2-keto-3, dehydro, 6 phosphogluconic acid.

pyruvate Glyceraldehyde-3-P

The top half of the

molecule of glucose
 The Entner-Doudoroff Pathway
Both the EM and the ED pathway convert a glucose molecule
to two molecules of pyruvate.

pyruvate Glyceraldehyde-3-P

The top half of the molecule of glucose

In the EM pathway, pyruvate arises by the intermediate

formation of glyceraldehyde-3-P. In the ED pathway, from the
top half of the molecule of glucose.
 The Entner-Doudoroff Pathway

The energy yield by substrate-level

phosphorylation per molecule of hexose degraded
by the EM pathway is twice that obtained by the
ED pathway.
 4) phosphoketolase pathway (PK)

[Link]
a. phosphoketolas Pathway

G xylulose 5-phosphate
phosphoketolase
acetyl phosphate + glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

pyruvate
ethanol
Lactic
acid
1 G  Lactic acid + ethanol + 1 ATP + NADPH + H+
[Link] phosphoketolas Pathway (HK)
（ Bifidobacterium bifidum ）

G fructose 6-phosphates
phosphoketolase
Erythrose - 4-P + acetyl-phosphates
fructose 6-phosphates acetokinase
xylulose -5-P
- ribulose-5-P
Acetic acid
phosphoketolase
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate + acetyl-phosphates

Lactic acid Acetic acid

1 G  Lactic acid + 1.5 Acetic acid + 2.5 ATP
2 fermentantion
1. definitions
broader ： use microorganism to produce useful metabolic product
narrower ： under anaerobic conditions, be defined as an energy-
yielding process using itself metabolic intermediates as the final
hydrogen (electron) accepter
organic molecules serve as both electron donors and acceptors.
trait ：
1 ） generates ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation ；
2 ） the glucose is partially oxidized ， mostly energy in fermention
products ；
3 ） lower energy ；
4 ） generates many kinds of fermention products
 C. Fermentation

Features of fermentation pathways

– Pyruvic acid is reduced to form reduced
organic acids or alcohols.
– The final electron acceptor is a reduced
derivative of pyruvic acid
– NADH is oxidized to form NAD: Essential for
continued operation of the glycolytic
pathways.
– O2 is not required.
– No additional ATP are made.
– Gasses (CO2 and/or H2) may be released
 C. Fermentation

Fermentation pathways are useful as

tools in biochemical identification.
Also used in industry: Synthesis of
certain organic compounds.
 C. Fermentation
Examples of fermentation pathways
– Lactic acid fermentation
Found in many bacteria;
e.g. Streptococcus cremoris, Lactobacillus acidophilus
– Mixed acid fermentation
e.g. Escherichia coli
Basis of the methyl red test
– 2,3-Butanediol fermentation
e.g. Enterobacter aerogenes
Basis of the Voges-Proskauer reaction
 C. Fermentation
– Other important fermentation end products
Ethanol
Saccharomyces cerevesiae
Propionic acid
Propionibacterium
Acetone, buteraldehyde, and butanol
Clostridium acetobutylicum
2. fermentation sorts
1 ） alcohol fermentation
a. yeasts
1 G （ EM 2 pyruvate  2 aldehyde + CO2
P）
 2 ethanol + 2 ATP

condiction ： pH 3.5~4.5 , without O2

Strain ： Saccharomyces cerevisiae, few bacteria(Erwinia amylovora,
Sarcine vintriculi)
I. Add NaHSO4
NaHSO4 + aldehyde  sulfonic hydroxy aldehyde
[Link] basic （ pH  7.5 ）
2 aldehyde  1 acetate + 1 ethanol
b. bacteria (Zymomonas mobili, Pseudomonas saccharophila )
homoalcohol
homo fermentation
1G 2 pyruvate ethanol + 1ATP
（E
D）

heteroalcohol fermentation (Thermoanaerobacter

ethanolicu)

1G 2 pyruvate
（ Pyruvate formate lyase
）
formic acids + acetyl-CoA
Without Pyruvate decarboxylate
aldehyde  ethanol
With aldehyde dehydrogenase
 2 ） Lactic acid fermentation

Homolactate fermentation
For example, Lactobacillus delbruckii, Streptococcus faecalis
—— EMP pathway （ pyruvate lactate ）
Heterolactate fermentation （ PK pathway ）
Leuconostoc mesenteroides （ PK）
generates energy ： 1ATP
Bifidobacterium bifidum （ PK、 HK ）

generates energy ： 2G  5 ATP, 1G  2.5ATP

3) mixed acid, butanediol fermentation
[Link] acid fermentation ：
——[Link], Salmonella , Shigella

CO2 + H2
lactate dehydrogenase
lactate
Pyruvate formate lyase
acetyl-CoA +formyl
phosphotransacetylase
1G pyruvate aldehyde dehydrogenase
acetokinase
Alcohol dehydrogenase

acetate ethanol
Methylmalonyl CoA Propionic
oxaloacetate
carboxyltransferase acid
b. butanediol fermentation
—— Enterobacter, Serratia
(acetolactate dehydrogenase)
pyruvate acetolactate 3-hydroxy butanone

V.P. test: （ OH- 、 O2 ）

Red substance diacetyl butanediol
neutral
Two important reaction:
1. V. P. test 2. methylene red (M.R) test

Enterobacter aerogenes: methylene red （ - ）

[Link]: V.P. （ - ） , methylene red （ + ）
4) acetone-butanol
acetone- fermentation

（ mixed, acetone:butanol
acetone: : ethanol = 3 ： 6 ： 1 ）
——Clostridium acetobutyricum

2 pyruvate 2 acetyl-CoA
acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase
acetoacetyl-CoA
（ acetate CoA transferase ）
（ acetoacetate decarboxylase ） butanol
acetone +CO2
Respiration

aerobic respiration
Respiration
anaerobic respiration

1. Aerobic Respiration:

The final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain is

molecular oxygen (O2).
（ 1 ） Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
Give the substrate and
products of the
tricarboxylic acid
cycle.
To provide carbon
skeletons for use in
biosynthesis
What chemical
intermediate links
glycolysis to the TCA
cycle?
The complete cycle
appears to be
functional in many
aerobic bacteria, free-
living protozoa, and
 TCA Cycle

Tricarboxylic acid cycle also known as

Krebs or citric acid cycle
This is a cycle to generate remaining
energy and reducing equivalents from
end product of glycolysis, pyruvate
Its intermediates serve as precursors
for biosynthesis of many other important
cellular compounds (amino acids)
TCA
Cycle
 TCA Cycle under anaerobic
conditions
Under anaerobic conditions, TCA cycle
cannot go full circle due to absence of
terminal electron acceptor (O2)
It now functions as a branched biosynthetic
pathway:
– one branch operating as a reductive pathway
reversing the sequence from succinate to
oxaloacetate
– The other branch continuing to operate oxidatively
to convert oxaloacetate to a-ketoglutarate
TCA variant
under
anaerobic
condition
 Glyoxylate Cycle

Activation of acetate with CoA to form acetyl-

CoA and the combined activities of the
enzymes isocitritase (isocitrate lyase) and
malate synthase provide for the operation of
a C4 cycle called glyoxylate cycle
It results in the net formation of malate from 2
mol of acetate
Activity of this bypass cycle explains the
ability of organisms to utilize acetate as a
sole source of carbon for growth.
 The
Glyoxylate
Cycle
（ 2 ） The Electron Transport
Chain
Some important electron transport chain carriers of
the respiration chain in microbes

Nicotianamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotianamide

adenine dinucleotide phosophate (NADP)
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and flavin mononucleotide
(FMN)
Iron-sulphur protein
Ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q)
Cytochrome system
The Mitochondrial
Electron Transport
Chain. Many of the more
important carriers are
arranged at
approximately the correct
reduction potential and
sequence. In the
eucaryotic mitochondrial
are organized into four
complexes that are linked
by coenzyme Q (I and
cytochrome c (Cyt c).
Electrons flow from
NADH and succinl down
the reduction potential
gradient to oxygen.
The electron transport chain in Prokaryote

Main outline:
electron accepter multiplicity ： O2, NO3-, NO2-, NO-, SO42-, S2-, CO32- et al ；

Electron donors ： H2, S, Fe2+, NH4+, NO2-, G, other orgnisim et al ；

various cytochrome ：
a, a1, a2, a4, b, b1, c, c1, c4, c5, d, o ；
Terminal oxidase ：
cyt a1, a2, a3, d, o ， catalase, peroxid enzyme ； Respiration Chain
component variable, being branched respiration chain ：
Bacterial chains also may be shorter and have lower P ／ O ratios than
mitochondrial transport chains ， from the several position of electron transport
chain into and off by Terminal oxidase in several position.
[Link] （ absent O2 ） CoQ  cyt.b556  cyt.o
cyt.b558  cyt.d
The cytochromes 0 branch has moderately high affinity for oxygen ， is a proton
pump ， and operates at higher oxygen concentrations;The cytochromes d branch has
（ 3 ） Oxidative phosphorylqtion
Chemiosmotic hypothesis
Chemiosmotic hypothesis-first formulated in 1961 by the British
biochemist Peter ． Mitchell.
According to the Chemiosmotic hypothesis,the electron transport
chain is organized so that protons move outward from the
mitochondrial matrix and electrons are transported inward. Protons
movement may result either from carrier loops,as shown in figure
9.14,or from the action of special proton pumps that derive their
energy from electron transport. The result is proton motive
force(PMF), composed of a gradient of protons and a membrane
porential due to the unequal distribution of [Link] protons
return to the mitochondrial matrix driven by the proton motive
force,ATP is synthesized in a reversal of the ATP hydrolysis reaction.
2. Anaerobic Respiration
The final electron acceptor in the
electron transport chain is not O2. Yields less energy than
aerobic respiration because only part of the Krebs cycles
operations under anaerobic conditions.

Nitrate Respiration （ Denitrification ）

Nitrate reduction
outline ：
a. have completely Respiration system ；
b. in the absence of O2 only ， nitrate reductase A and nitrous
acid reductase needing for Denitrification are induced.
c. facultative anaerobic
bacteria: Bacillus licheniformis, Paracoccus denitrificans,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and so on.
 Nitrate Respiration
Homotype ：
NO3-  NH3 - N  R - NH2
Hetertype ：
in the absence of O2 ， use NO3-as the final hydrongen accepter
Facultative anaerobe (viz denitrify bacteriua)
NO3-  NO2  NO   N2O  N2
   
NaR NiR NOR N2OR
denitrification ：
1) make N （ NO3- ） in soil reduced into N2 ， and disappear,
reduce edaphic fertility ；
2) Denitrification has the importance action in nitrogen cycle.
 Sulfate Respiration (sulfate reduction ）

——in the absent of O2,SO42-, SO32-, S2O32- as the final

electron accepter
outline:
a. obligate anaerobic bacteria ；
b. mostly ancient bacteria
c. mostil obligate chemoheterotroph ， few mixed ；
d. end product: H2S ；
SO42-  SO32-  SO2  S  H2S
e. use organic nutrients （ organic acid, fatty acid, 醇类） as
hydrogen donors or electron donors ；
f. environment ： contain SO42- , anaerobic environment （ soil,
seawater ）
For example, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, D ． Gigas, Desulfotomaculum
nigrificans and so on.
 Sulfur Respiration （ Sulfur reductio
n）
—— use element Sulfur as the final electron accepter only.
electron donors ： aceticm acid, small peptide, glucose,
carbohydrate polymers;
For example, Desulfuromonas acetoxidans

Carbonate Respiration （ Carbonate reduction ）

—— use CO2 、 HCO3- as the final electron accepter
methane-producing bacteria:
—— use H2 as electron donors （ energy resources), CO2 as
accepter ， produce CH4;
Producing acetic acid bacteria
— H2 / CO2 carry out Anaerobic Respiration ， product acetic
acid
other anaerobic respiration
—— use Fe3+,Mn2+ , many organic oxide as the final
electron accepter
fumaric acid  succinate + 1 ATP
For example, Escherichia, Proteus, Salmonella, Klebsiella in
some facultative anaerobic bacteria, Bacteroides,
Propionibacterium, Vibrio succinogenes in some anaerobic
bacteria.

Use Desulfotomaculum
auripigmentum reduces AsO43-
into As2S3
 D. Respiration
Features of respiratory pathways
– Pyruvic acid is oxidized completely to CO2.
– The final electron acceptor is usually an inorganic
substance.
– NADH is oxidized to form NAD: Essential for
continued operation of the glycolytic pathways.
– O2 may or may not be required.
Aerobic respiration: O2 is the final e- acceptor.
Anaerobic respiration: An substance, usually inorganic,
other than O2 is the acceptor (eg nitrate, nitrite, sulfate)
– A lot of additional ATP are made (up to 36 per
glucose molecule).
 D. Respiration
Stages of Respiration
– Preliminary reactions and the Krebs cycle
(TCA or Citric Acid Cycle)
– Respiratory electron transport
 E. Photosynthesis
Overview of Photosynthesis
– Light-dependent Reactions:
Light energy is harvested by photosynthetic pigments
and transferred to special reaction center (photosystem)
chlorophyll molecules.
The light energy is used to strip electrons from an
electron donor (the electron donor goes from a reduced
to an oxidized state).
The electrons are shuttled through a series of electron
carriers from high energy state to a low energy state.
During this process, ATP is formed.
In the cyclic pathway of electron transport, electrons are
returned to the electron transport chain
In the noncyclic pathway, the electrons are used to
reduce NAD (or NADP) to NADH (or NADPH)
Photosynthesis

Glycolysis and TCA

 E. Photosynthesis

– Light-independent Reactions:
ATP and NADH (NADPH) from the light-
dependent reactions are used to reduce CO2 to
form organic carbon compounds (carbon
fixation).
The reduced organic carbon is usually
converted into glucose or other carbohydrates.
 E. Photosynthesis
Oxygenic photosynthesis
– Found in cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
and eukaryotic chloroplasts
– Electron donor is H2O: Oxidized to form O2
– Two photosystems: PSII and PSI
– Major function is to produce NADPH and ATP
for the carbon fixation pathways
 E. Photosynthesis
Anoxygenic photosynthesis
– Found in:
Green sulfur bacteria (e.g. Chlorobium)
Green nonsulfur bacteria (e.g. Chloroflexus)
Purple sulfur bacteria (e.g. Chromatium)
Purple nonsulfur bacteria (e.g. Rhodobacter)
 E. Photosynthesis
Anoxygenic photosynthesis (cont.)
– Electron donors vary:
H2S or So in the green and purple sulfur bacteria
H2 or organic compounds in the green and purple nonsulfur
bacteria
– Only one photosystem
In green bacteria, the photosystem is similar to PSI
In purple bacteria, the photosystem is similar to PSII
– Primary function is ATP production, chiefly via cyclic
photophosphorylation
 F. Chemolithotrophy

Features of Chemolithotrophy
– Electrons are removed from a reduced
inorganic electron donor
– The electrons are passed through a
membrane-bound electron transport
pathway, often coupled to the synthesis of
ATP and NADH
– The electrons are ultimately passed to a final
electron acceptor
– ATP and NADH may be used to convert CO2
to carbohydrate
 F. Chemolithotrophy

Examples of electron donors

– Ammonia (NH4+)  Nitrite (NO2-)
in Nitrosomonas
– Nitrite (NO2-)  Nitrate (NO32-)
in Nitrobacter
– Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)  Sulfur (So)
in Thiobacillus and Beggiatoa
– Sulfur (So)  Sulfate (SO42-)
in Thiobacillus
– Hydrogen (H2)  Water (H2O)
in Alcaligenes
 F. Chemolithotrophy
Examples of electron acceptors
– Oxygen (O2)  Water (H2O)
in many organisms
– Carbon dioxide (CO2)  Methane (CH4)
in the methanogenic bacteria
 green sulfur bacteria:
Chlorobium
green nonsulfur bacteria :
Chloroflexus

purple sulfur bacteria:

Chromatium
purple nonsulfur bacteria:
Rhodospirillum,
Rhodopseudomonas
Purple Nonsulfur Bacterial Photosynthesis.
Cyclic photophosphorylation
The photosynthetic
electron transport system
in the purple nonsulfur
bacterium, Rhodobacter
sphaeroides.

This scheme is incomplete

and tentative.

Ubiquinone (Q) is very

similar to coenzyme Q.
BPh stands
bacteriopheophytin. NAD+
and the electron source
succinate are in color.
Green Sulfur Bacterial Photosynthesis.

Light energy is used to

make ATP by cyclic
photophosphorylation

move electrons from sulfur

donors (green and blue) to
NAD+ (red).

The electron transport chain

has a quinone called
menaquinone (MK).

The photosynthetic electron transport system in the

green sulfur bacterium, Chlorobium limicola.
noncyelic photophosphorylation
Outline :

electrons flow from water all the way to

NADP with the aid of energy from two
photosystems,
ATP is synthesized by noncyelic
photophosphorylation.
one ATP and one NADPH are formed when
two electrons travel through noncyclic
pathway.
3) Photosynthesis of purple membrane in
halophilic bacteria
Halobacterium uses bacteriorhodopsin, not
chlorophyll, to generate electrons for a chemiosmotic
proton pump.
Section 3 microbial secondary metabolism
and its product

There are many kinds of secondary metabolite

which primary metabolic products serve as
substrate, some of these products have a
considerable importance in fermentation industry.

Metabolic adjustment of secondary metabolite is

similar to primary metabolism, influenced by
many factors.
Microbial secondary metabolism and its product

Regulation of secondary metabolism

1 primary metabolism

2 nitric compound

3 induction and feedback inhibition

Section 4 Regulation of metabolism and
ferment product practise.

Metabolic regulation kinds are various,

microorganism produce metabolic product to
offer service for fermentation industry and to
benefit for mankind with their relevant
knowledge of adjusting control.
Using microbial metabolic product

Metabolic product type ：

1 primary metabolic products:
amino acid, enzyme or coenzyme ；
2 submetabolic products:
antibiotic, hormone, alkaloid, toxin, vitamin, and so on.

Fermentation type ：
1 Natural fermentation:
fermentation ethanol, lacate and so on ，
2 Metabolic control fermentation:
fermentation
terminal products: lysine, guanylic acid, adenylic acid and so on ；

metabolic intermediates: citrate,α-ketoglutaric acid, succinate,inosinic

acid,xanthine nucleotide and so on ；
Control of ferment condiction

1 ） cultrue condition ： temperature, pH and so on;

2 ） nutrition component ： glucose concentration,

C/N, growth factor, and so on;

3 ） dissolved oxygen: aeration numbr, agitation and so

on. 。
Microbial metabolism and Metabolic engneering
Metabolic Engineering introduce xylose Metabolic pathway

Xylose Xylose reductase

Xylose isomerase xylitol Pichia stipitis Glucose

bacteria Xylulose xylitol dehydrogenase

Xlulokinase
Glycolysis
Pentose
Xylulose-5-P phosphoketolas Entner-
Pathway Doudoroff
Pathway

Pyruvate

Ethanol
Using active metabolism in microbes

1 biotransformation,

2 microbial straw xylan-degrading,

3 microbiohydrometallurgy and oil extraction,

4 biodegradation
 Review of Metabolism Pathways

[Link]

Glucose metabolism is the centre of the cell metabolism

pathways
 Hydrocarbon Catabolism
Hydrocarbon: C & H
- Aliaphatic hydrocarbon
e.g. octane, C8H18
polyethylene –HC=CH-
- Aromatic hydrocarbon
naphthalene
naphthalene
Metabolism of hydrocarbon
- Requires oxygen
- Hydrocarbons are converted to acetyl-CoA which
is metabolized by TCA cycle.
- Challenges : low solubility in aqueous solution.
available microorganisms are limited
Pseudomonas, Mycobacteria
 Naphthalene Pathway

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
 References:

Prescott LM, Harley JP, and Klein DA. Microbiology

(5th ed.), Higher education press and McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.2002
Michael TM, John MM, Jack P. Brock biology of
micoorganisms ， International edition, Pearson
Education, Inc.2003
Talaro K. P. Foundations in microbiology (Fifth
Edition), Higher education press and McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.2005