Biological Psychology

Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 9
Internal Regulation

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Temperature Regulation

• Temperature affects many aspects of behavior

• Temperature regulation is vital to the normal functioning
of many behavioral processes
• Homeostasis refers to temperature regulation and other
biological processes that keep certain body variables
within a fixed range

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Homeostasis

• Various biological processes that keep body variables

within a fixed range.
– Examples: temperature, levels of water, oxygen, glucose,
calcium, protein, fat, and acidity in the body
• Set point: a single value that the body works to
maintain
• Negative feedback: processes that reduce
discrepancies from the set point
– Much of motivated behavior can be described as
negative feedback

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Allostasis

• Allostasis refers to the adaptive way in which the body

anticipates needs depending on the situation
– Helps the body avoid errors instead of just correcting
them

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Homeostasis
•
Homeostasis: “Change in the face of change
so as to remain unchanged…”
–
Process of maintaining a constant internal
environment
–
Assumes regulatory mechanisms:
• System variable
• Set-point
• Detector
• Correctional mechanism
 PHYSIOLOGICAL REGULATORY
MECHANISMS
•
A physiological regulatory mechanism is one
that maintains the constancy of some internal
characteristic of the organism in the face of
external variability.
•
A regulatory mechanism contains four
essential features:
•
system variable (the characteristic to be
regulated),
•
set point (the optimal value of the system
variable),

•
detector that monitors the value of the
system variable,

•
correctional mechanism that restores the
system variable to the set point.
2/14/12
 PHYSIOLOGICAL REGULATORY
MECHANISMS
•
Negative feedback—A process whereby the
effect produced by an action serves to
diminish or terminate that action; a
characteristics of regulatory systems.

•
Satiety mechanism—A brain mechanism that
causes cessation of hunger or thirst, produced
by adequate and available supplies of
nutrients or water.
Control of Drinking
 Controlling Body Temperature

• Temperature regulation is one of the body’s biological

priorities
• Maintaining temperature requires twice as much energy
as all other activities combined
• Basal metabolism
– Energy used to maintain a constant body temperature
while at rest

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Brain Mechanisms—POA/AH

• Body temperature regulation is predominantly

dependent upon areas in the preoptic area/ anterior
hypothalamus (POA/AH)
• POA/AH receives input from temperature receptors
throughout the body
– Heating the POA/AH leads to panting or sweating;
cooling leads to shivering
– Receives input from the immune system

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Major Subdivisions of the
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Integration of Temperature Information
by the POA/AH

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Brain Mechanisms—The Immune System

• Immune system delivers prostaglandins and histamines

– Causes shivering, increased metabolism, and fever
• POA/AH is not the only brain area involved in
temperature regulation
– Primary area for controlling sweating or shivering

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Fever

• Reflects an increased body temperature set point,

directed by the hypothalamus
• Benefits
– Certain bacteria grow less vigorously
– Immune system works more vigorously
• Fever of above 39˚C (103˚F) does the body more harm
than good
– Fevers above 41˚C (109˚F) are life-threatening

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Thirst

• Water constitutes 70 percent of the mammalian body

• Water in the body must be regulated within narrow
limits
– Sufficient fluid needed in circulatory system
• The concentrations of chemicals in water determines
the rate of all chemical reactions in the body

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Mechanisms of Water Regulation

• Human mechanisms of water regulation vary

depending on circumstances
• Water can be conserved by:
– Excreting concentrated urine
– Decreasing sweat
• Most often, water regulation is accomplished by
drinking more water than we need and excreting the
rest

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Mechanisms of Water Regulation—
Vasopressin
• Vasopressin is a hormone released by the posterior
pituitary
– Raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels
– Helps to compensate for decreased water volume
– Also known as an antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
– Enables the kidneys to reabsorb water and excrete highly
concentrated urine

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Types of Thirst

• Two different kinds of thirst

– Osmotic thirst: results from eating salty foods
– Hypovolemic thirst: a thirst resulting from loss of fluids
due to bleeding or sweating
• Fixed concentration of solutes in the body is a set point
– 0.15 M (molar) in mammals

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 DRINKING
•
The intracellular fluid is controlled by the
concentration of solutes in the interstitial
fluid.
•
Normally, the interstitial fluid is isotonic with
the intracellular fluid.
•
That is, the concentration of solutes in the
cells and in the interstitial fluid that bathes
them is balanced, so that water does not tend
to move into or out of the cells.
Fluid Balance

12.21
•
If the interstitial fluid loses water (becomes
more concentrated, or hypertonic), water will
move out of the cells through osmosis.
•
On the other hand, if the interstitial fluid gains
water (becomes more dilute, or hypotonic),
water will move into the cells.

2/14/12
Water Movement Across
Compartments

12.23
 Osmotic Pressure (1 of 2)

• Solutes inside and outside a cell create osmotic

pressure
– Water flows across a semi-permeable membrane from
an area of low solute concentration to an area of high
solute concentration
– Occurs when solutes are more concentrated on one side
of the membrane

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

The Consequence of a Difference in
Osmotic Pressure

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Osmotic Pressure (2 of 2)

• Eating salty food causes sodium ions to spread through

the blood and extracellular fluid of the cell
– The higher concentration of solutes outside the cell
results in osmotic pressure, drawing water from the cell
to the extracellular fluid
• Certain neurons detect the loss of water and trigger
osmotic thirst to help restore the body to its normal
state

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Osmometric Thirst
•
Stimulus: increased tonicity of the interstitial fluid
–
Loss of fluid during evaporation
–
Ingestion of salt will increase tonicity and induce
movement of water out of cells
–
Fitzsimons experiment: remove rat kidneys, inject
various salts: measure water consumption.
• Only substances that withdrew intracellular water (without
crossing cell membrane) induced thirst (e.g. NaCl)
12.27
 Osmometric Thirst
•
Osmometric thirst occurs when the tonicity (solute
concentration) of the interstitial fluid increases.
•
This increase draws water out of the cells, and they
shrink in volume.
•
Neurons that respond to changes in the solute
concentration of the interstitial fluid—
osmoreceptors.
Osmoreceptors

12.29
 Detecting Osmotic Pressure

• The brain detects osmotic pressure from:

– Receptors around the third ventricle
– The OVLT (organum vasculosum laminae terminalis) and
the subfornical organ (SFO)
 Detect osmotic pressure and sodium content of the blood
– Receptors in the periphery, including the stomach and
digestive tract

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 OVLT Receptors

• Receptors in the OVLT, subfornical organ, stomach and

elsewhere relay information to two areas of the
hypothalamus
– Supraoptic nucleus
– Paraventricular nucleus
 Both control the rate at which the posterior pituitary
releases vasopressin
• Receptors also relay information to the lateral preoptic
area, which controls drinking

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Diagram of Osmometric Thirst

[Link] Thirst
nuc.
Increased Blood Solute
Concentration

OVLT
Osmoreceptors

BBB
12.32
The Brain’s Receptors for Osmotic
Pressure and Blood Volume

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Osmotic Thirst

• When osmotic thirst is triggered, water that you drink

must be absorbed through the digestive system
– Delivered by the blood to the brain
– Process takes about 15 minutes
• To inhibit thirst, the body monitors swallowing and
detects the distension of the stomach and intestines

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Volumetric Thirst
•
Volumetric thirst, when we lose water through
evaporation, we lose it from all three fluid
compartments: intracellular, interstitial, and
intravascular.
•
Loss of blood is the most obvious cause of pure
volumetric thirst.
•
Should damage occur to the osmometric system,
volumetric thirst provides a second line of defense
against a loss of water.
 Hypovolemic Thirst
•
Reduced blood volume provokes drinking
–
Stimuli:
• Blood loss
• Loss of isotonic fluid (vomiting, diarrhea)
• Experimental techniques
– Injection of a colloid such as polyethylene glycol (PG)
– PG sequesters water and salt: then withdrawn from the body

–
Hypovolemic stimuli produce:
• Drinking
12.36
• Salt appetite
 Volumetric Thirst
•
The kidneys contain cells that are able to detect
decreases in the flow of blood to the kidneys.
•
When the flow of blood to the kidneys decreases,
these cells secrete an enzyme called renin.
•
Renin enters the blood, where it catalyzes the
conversion of a protein called angiotensinogen into a
hormone called angiotensin.
•
Renin. A hormone secreted by the kidneys that
causes the conversion of angiotensinogen in the blood
into angiotensin.

•
Angiotensin. A peptide hormone that constricts blood
vessels, causes the retention of sodium and water, and
produces thirst and a salt appetite.

2/14/12
 Volumetric Thirst
•
Angiotensin has several physiological effects:
•
It stimulates the secretion of hormones by the
posterior pituitary gland and the adrenal cortex that
cause the kidneys to conserve water and sodium, and
it increases blood pressure by causing muscles in the
small arteries to contract.
Detection of Hypovolemia

12.40
•
Atrial Baroreceptors.
•
The second set of receptors for volumetric thirst lies
within the heart.
•
Physiologists had long known that the atria of the
heart.
•
The atria are positively filled with blood being
returned from the body by the veins.

2/14/12
•
The more blood that is present, the fuller the atria
become just before each contraction of the heart.

•
Thus, when the volume of the blood plasma falls, the
atria become less full, and the stretch receptors
within them will detect this change.

2/14/12
 Dual Hypovolemic Sensors
•
Angiotensin II is formed when blood flow
through kidneys is reduced
–
AII has dual effects
• Stimulates drinking
• Produces an appetite for salt

•
Baroreceptors within atrium of heart signal
blood volume:
–
Reduced stretch results in drinking
12.43
Neural Control of Drinking

12.44
Comparison of Osmotic and Hypovolemic
Thirst

Type of Best Relieved Receptor

Caused by
Thirst by Location
Osmotic High solute Pure water OVLT,
concentration subfornical
outside cells organ, and
digestive tract
Hypovolemic Low blood Water Kidneys and
Volume containing blood vessels
solutes, near
0.15M

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Hunger

• Animals vary in their eating strategies

– Predators have large digestive systems adapted to huge,
infrequent meals
– Bears eat constantly
– Small birds eat only what is needed at the moment
 To preserve light weight for flight
– Chickadees eat enough daily to increase body weight 10
percent
 Then lose it at night keeping warm

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

A Python Swallowing a Gazelle

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Digestion and Food Selection

• Digestive system function

– Break down food into smaller molecules that the cells
can use
• Digestion begins in the mouth
– Enzymes in saliva break down carbohydrates
• Hydrochloric acid and enzymes in the stomach digest
proteins

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

The Human Digestive System

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Digestion and Food Selection—
The Intestines
• Enzymes in the small intestine digest proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates
– Digested food absorbs into the bloodstream
• The large intestine absorbs water and minerals
– Lubricates the remaining materials to pass as feces

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Food Selection and Behavior

• Unsubstantiated beliefs may influence food selection

– Examples:
 Sugar intake increases hyperactivity in children
 Eating turkey increases body supply of tryptophan, which
makes you sleepy
– Adage that fish is brain food is partly true
 Eating fish may help improve memory

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Eating
•
The primary function of eating is to obtain and to store
energy
–
Food contains carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals
–
Digestion breaks down ingested nutrients and stores
as energy
• Glycogen (short-term)
• Triglyceride (long-term)

13.52
Eating: Some Facts About Metabolism
The short-term reservoir is located in the cells of
the liver and the muscles, and it is filled with a
complex, insoluble carbohydrate called glycogen.

Glycogen
A polysaccharide often referred to as animal
starch; stored in liver and muscle;
constitutes the short-term store of
nutrients.

54
Eating: Some Facts About Metabolism

Insulin
A pancreatic hormone that facilitates entry
of glucose and amino acids into the cell,
conversion of glucose into glycogen, and
transport of fats into adipose tissue.

Glucagon
A pancreatic hormone that promotes the
conversion of liver glycogen into glucose.
55
Figure 11.9
Effects of Insulin and Glucagon on Glucose and Glycogen

56
•
The carbohydrate reservoir in the liver is reserved
primarily for the central nervous system.
•
When you wake in the morning, your brain is being
fed by your liver, which is in the process of
converting glycogen to glucose and releasing it into
the blood.
•
The glucose reaches the CNS, where it is absorbed
and metabolized by the neurons and glia.
•
This process can continue for a few hours, until all of
the carbohydrate reservoir in the liver is used up.
(The average liver holds approximately 300 calories
of carbohydrate.)
2/14/12
Eating: Some Facts About Metabolism

The short-term reservoir is located in the cells of

the liver and the muscles, and it is filled with a
complex, insoluble carbohydrate called glycogen.

Our long-term reservoir consists of adipose tissue

(fat tissue).

This reservoir is filled with fats, or, more precisely,

with triglycerides.

58
Eating: Some Facts About Metabolism

Triglyceride
The form of fat storage in adipose cells;
consists of a molecule of glycerol joined with
three fatty acids.

Glycerol
A substance (also called glycerine) derived
from the breakdown of triglycerides, along
with fatty acids; can be converted by the liver
into glucose.

59
Eating: Some Facts About Metabolism

Fatty acid
A substance derived from the breakdown of
triglycerides, along with glycerol; can be
metabolized by most cells of the body
except for the brain.

Adipose tissue is found beneath the skin and in

various locations in the abdominal cavity. It
consists of cells that are capable of absorbing
nutrients from the blood, converting them to
triglycerides, and storing them.
60
Eating: Some Facts About Metabolism

The long-term fat reservoir is obviously what keeps

us alive when we are fasting.

Fasting phase
The phase of metabolism during which
nutrients are not available from the digestive
system; glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids
are derived from glycogen, protein, and
adipose tissue during this phase.

61
Eating: Some Facts About Metabolism

The phase of metabolism that occurs when food is

present in the digestive tract is called the absorptive
phase.

Absorptive phase
The phase of metabolism during which nutrients
are absorbed from the digestive system; glucose
and amino acids constitute the principal source of
energy for cells during this phase, and excess
nutrients are stored in adipose tissue in the form
of triglycerides.

62
Figure 11.10
Metabolic Pathways During the Fasting Phase and Absorptive Phase of Metabolism

63
 The Stomach and Intestines—Nerves

• The main signal to stop eating is the distention of the

stomach
• The vagus nerve
– Cranial nerve X
– Conveys information about the stretching of the stomach
walls to the brain

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

The Stomach and Intestines—Duodenum

• Duodenum
– Part of the small intestine
– Site of initial absorption of significant amounts of
nutrients
• Distention of the duodenum can also produce feelings
of satiety
• The duodenum also releases the hormone
cholecystokinin (CCK), which helps to regulate hunger

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 The Stomach and Intestines—CCK

• Cholecystokinin (CCK) released by the duodenum

regulates hunger by:
– Closing the sphincter muscle between the stomach and
duodenum and causing the stomach to hold its contents
and fill faster
– Stimulating the vagus nerve to send a message to the
hypothalamus that releases a chemical similar to CCK

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Glucose, Insulin, and Glucagon

• Glucose
– Main product of digestion
– Important source of energy for the body
– Nearly the only fuel used by the brain
• Insulin and glucagon regulate the flow of glucose into
cells
• Excess glucose enters the liver and fat cells

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Insulin

• Pancreatic hormone that enables glucose to enter the

cell
• After a meal:
– Blood glucose levels fall
– Insulin levels drop
– Glucose enters cells more slowly
– Hunger increases
– Pancreas releases glucagon

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Insulin and Glucagon Feedback System

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Glucagon

• Hormone released by the pancreas when glucose

levels fall
– Stimulates the liver to convert some of its stored
glycogen to glucose
 To replenish low supplies in the blood

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Effects of Steady High Insulin Levels
on Feeding

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Type I Diabetes

• In people with Type I diabetes, insulin levels remain

constantly low, but blood glucose levels are high
– People eat more food than normal, but excrete the
glucose unused and lose weight

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Cycle of Untreated Type I Diabetes

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

[Link]
jOfR8vcas
Click icon to add picture

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Leptin (1 of 2)

• Long-term hunger regulation is accomplished by the

monitoring of fat supplies by the body
• The body’s fat cells produce the peptide leptin, which
signals the brain to increase or decrease eating
• Low levels of leptin increase hunger
• High levels reduce eating and increase physical and
immune system activity

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Leptin (2 of 2)

• High levels of leptin do not necessarily decrease

hunger
– Most people are obese because they are less sensitive
to leptin
– Sensitivity declines during pregnancy and when animals
prepare for hibernation
• Puberty is triggered by a certain level of leptin during
adolescence

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Brain Mechanisms

• Information from all parts of the body regarding hunger

impinge onto the arcuate nucleus
• The arcuate nucleus is a part of the hypothalamus
containing two sets of neurons
– Neurons sensitive to hunger signals
– Neurons sensitive to satiety signals

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 The Arcuate Nucleus and Paraventricular
Hypothalamus
• Ghrelin
– Neurotransmitter released in the brain
– Acts on the hypothalamus to increase appetite
– Triggers stomach contractions
• Nicotine also stimulates the satiety neurons in the
arcuate nucleus
– Cigarette smoking decreases appetite

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 The Arcuate Nucleus

• Input to the satiety-sensitive cells of the arcuate

nucleus
– Signals of both long-term and short-term satiety
– Distention of the intestine triggers neurons to release the
neurotransmitter CCK
– Blood glucose stimulates satiety cells in the arcuate
nucleus
– Body fat releases leptin

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Hypothalamic Transmitters of Feeding

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Paraventricular Hypothalamus

• Output from the arcuate nucleus goes to the

paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus
– Part of the hypothalamus that inhibits the lateral
hypothalamus, an area important for eating
– Axons from the satiety-sensitive cells of the arcuate
nucleus deliver an excitatory message to the
paraventricular nucleus
 Causes release of melanocortins

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Melanocortin

• Melanocortin: chemical important in limiting food intake

– Deficiencies of this receptor lead to overeating
• Input from the hunger cells of the arcuate nucleus:
– Inhibits the paraventricular nucleus
 Which, in turn, inhibits the lateral hypothalamus

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Inhibitory Transmitters

• GABA
• Neuropeptide Y (NPY)
• Agouti-related peptide (AgRP)
• NPY and AgRP block the satiety action of the
paraventricular nucleus and provoke overeating

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Orexin

• Additional pathway from paraventricular nucleus

– Cells in the lateral hypothalamus release orexin
• Orexin increases animals’ persistence in seeking food
– Influences response to incentives and reinforcement in
general

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 The Lateral Hypothalamus

• Feeding-related functions of the lateral hypothalamus

– Controls insulin secretion
– Alters taste responsiveness
• Stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus increases the
drive to eat
– Damage to this area causes aversion to food

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Recovery After Damage to the Lateral
Hypothalamus in Rats

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

Pathways From the Lateral Hypothalamus

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 The Lateral Hypothalamus and Axons

• Many axons pass through the lateral hypothalamus

• Axon functions
– Affect the taste sensation and salivation response to
tastes
– Cause cortical cells to increase response to taste, smell,
or sight of food
– Increase pituitary gland’s hormone secretion that
increase insulin secretion
– Control digestive secretions

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Medial Areas of the Hypothalamus

• Output from the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

inhibits feeding
– Damage to this nucleus leads to overeating and weight
gain
 Rats eat normal sized meals but eat more frequently
 Increased stomach motility—stomach empties faster than
normal

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Effects of Hypothalamic Lesions

Hypothalamic Area Effect of Lesion

Preoptic area Deficit in physiological mechanisms of temperature regulation
Deficit in osmotic thirst due partly to damage to cells and
Lateral preoptic area
partly to interruption of passing axons
Undereating, weight loss, low insulin level (because of
Lateral hypothalamus damage to cell bodies); underarousal, underresponsiveness
(because of damage of damage of passing axons)
Ventromedial hypothalamus Increased meal frequency, weight gain, high insulin level

Increased meal size, especially increased carbohydrate

Paraventricular nucleus
intake during the first meal of the active period of the day

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

[Link]
RmccgFIs8
Click icon to add picture

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Eating Disorders

• Availability of tasty, high calorie foods makes animals

(and people) obese, and they find other rewards less
rewarding
• Psychological distress does not cause weight gain
• A high-fat diet before birth can result in the offspring
being born with a larger than average lateral
hypothalamus

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Genetics and Body Weight

• Thin parents tend to have thin children and heavy

parents tend to have heavy children
• People with a mutated gene for the receptors for
melanocortin overeat: melanocortin responsible for
satiety
• Prader-Willi syndrome: genetic condition marked by
intellectual disability, short stature, and obesity: high
blood levels of ghrelin

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Weight Loss

• Obesity considered a disease in the United States

• Dieting by itself not considered reliably effective
– Most people do not stick to diet for long
• Lifestyle changes including increased exercise
essential
• Some drugs are effective in weight loss
• Gastric bypass surgery

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Bulimia Nervosa

• Eating disorder in which people alternate between

extreme dieting and binges of overeating
– Some force vomiting after eating
– Associated with increased release of ghrelin and
alterations of several other hormones and transmitters
– Resembles drug addiction

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Anorexia Nervosa

• Eating disorder characterized by a refusal to eat

enough to maintain a healthy body weight
– Most have an exaggerated fear of getting fat
– Many also engage in excessive exercise
– Have altered dopamine levels—cause versus effect?
– New hypothesis for treatment—adjust temperature levels
 European trials showed ¾ of patients fully recovered

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.