Introduction to Parasitology

Dr. Eunice Owino

 Key definitions: What is ….?
Parasitology:- is a science that deals with parasites. It is basically
a study of symbiosis.
Symbiosis: it’s an association where dissimilar organisms or species
(heterogenetic associations) live together.
They include
i. Phoresis,
ii. Commensalism,
iii. Mutualism, and
iv. Parasitism
 Association of Organisms
i. Phoresis (Phoresy): It means “to carry.”
It’s a type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism; the smaller called
phoront, is mechanically carried on or in another species (host).
N.B. The organism does not depend physiologically on the host.
ii. Commensalism. The parasite benefits from the host while the host
neither benefits nor get harmed. Occurs when one member of the
associating pair, usually the smaller, receives all the benefit and the other
member is neither benefited nor harmed. E,g E. coli and man
 Associations of Organisms
iii. Mutualism: Occurs when each member of the association benefits the
other. Mutuals are metabolically dependent on one another; It’s an
obligatory relationship and one cannot survive in the absence of the
other e.g termites and intestinal flagellates.

• While, termites feed on wood with a lot of cellulose, they can’t digest the
cellulose. The flagellates help in digesting this cellulose such that the
termites can absorb nutrients from it. On the other hand, the termites gut
provides a safe habitat for the flagellates to live and breed.
 Association of Organisms
iv. Parasitism: It is an intimate and obligatory relationship between two
organisms during which time one organism; the parasite, is
metabolically or physilogically dependent on the host, e.g
developmental stimuli ,nutritional dependence, digestive enzymes,
control of maturation, and in the process causes harm to the host.
• One organism lives at the expense of the other. The later (host)usually
suffers from the association e.g Hookworms in humans.

• N.B. So, If we consider the degree of the association, then phoresis

and commensalism represent “loose” associations, where as mutualism
and parasitism indicate “intimate” associations.
 Features of Parasites
A parasite: “An organism that lives temporarily or permanently in or on
another living organism (Host) from which it is physically or
physiologically dependent upon.
• It acquires some of its basic nutritional requirements through its intimate
contact with its host .
• Parasites may be simple unicellular protozoa e.g Plasmodium or complex
multicellular metazoa e.g Worms and Arthropods like ticks and lice.
• All parasitic organisms are eukaryotes.
 Features of Parasites

Features of parasites
i. Smaller than their host,
ii. Outnumber the host,
iii. Short life span than their host, and
iv. Have greater reproductive potential than their host.
Parasite classification
Classification of parasites can be:
I. According to their habitat:
• An endoparasite: a parasite that lives within another living organism” –
e.g. malaria parasite plasmodium sp Giardia lamblia, Ascaris
lumbricoides, etc.
• An ectoparasite: “a parasite that lives on the external surface of another
living organism” – e.g. lice, ticks
II. According to their dependence on the host:
• Obligate parasites: The parasite depends completely upon its host for
metabolites, shelter, and transportation. This parasite can not live outside
its host. e.g. Plasmodium species, Trichmonas vaginalis, etc.
• Facultative parasite: The parasite is capable of independent existence in
addition to parasitic life. e.g. Strongyloids stercolaris, Naegleria fowleri,
etc.
Parasite classification
III. According to their Pathogenicity:
• Pathogenic parasites:- It causes disease in the host. E.g., E.
histolytica
• Non-Pathogenic (commensal) parasite:-The parasite derives food
and protection from the host without causing harm to the host. E.g.
Entamoeba coli
• Opportunistic parasites:- Parasites which cause mild disease in
immunologically healthy individuals, but they cause severe disease in
immuno-deficient hosts. E.g. Pneumocystis carnii, Toxcoplasma
gondii, Isospora belli
 Parasite Classification
IV. According to their duration on the host
• Temporary parasite- Visits its host for a short period.
• Permanent parasite- Leads a parasitic life throughtout the whole
period of its life.
Then we also have
• Wandering or Aberrant parasite- Happens to reach a place where
it cannot live.
• Free living- The term free living describes the non parasitic stages
of existence which are lived independently of a host. E.g. hookwarm
have active free living stages in the soil.
Parasite classification
Parasitoids; Organisms that are typically parasites in
their early stages of development but end up killing their
hosts at the completion of development.
• Their immature stages feed on the bodies of their
hosts.They are usually insects belonging to order
Diptera (flies) and Hymenoptera(wasps) .
• They only require a single host and are therefore not
they are predators.
 Types of Hosts:
Host: The organism which harbors the parasite. The parasite lives IN or
ON it and causes harm.
• Definitive host: The organism in which the adult or sexually mature
stage of the parasite lives e.g., man is the definitive host of Taenia
saginata. When the mature or most highly developed form is not obvious
the definitive host is the mammalian host, e.g., human is the definitive
host for trypanosomes that cause African trypanosomiasis.
• Intermediate host: The organism in which the parasite lives during a
period of its development only. It harbors sexually immature or larval
stage of a parasite and in which no fertilization takes place in it. E.g. Cow
is the intermediate host for Taenia saginata, while Humans are the
intermediate hosts for malaria parasites Plasmodium sp and Hydatid
parasites Echinococcus granulosus.
• N.B. In some cases larval developments are completed in two different intermediate hosts .These are
referred as first and second intermediate hosts respectively
 Types of Hosts:-
• Reservoir host: A wild or domestic animal which harbors a parasite and
acts as sources of infection to human hosts.
• Epidemiologically, reservoir hosts are important in the control of parasitic
disease.
• Carrier (parentic) host: A host harboring and disseminating a parasite
but exhibiting no clinical sign. The parasite remains viable in this host
without further development.
• Accidental (Incidental) host: Infection of a host other than the normal
host species. A parasite may or may not continue full development in this
host.
 Other important definitions
Medical parasitology: It is the study of parasites that cause diseases
and their medical implications in humans.

Eukaryote: a cell with a well-defined chromosome in a membrane-bound

nucleus.

• So viruses are not parasites, they are prokaryotes.

 Other important definitions
Zoonosis: A parasitic disease in which an animal is normally the host -
but which also infects man”
Vector: A living carrier (e.g.an arthropod) that transports a pathogenic
organism from an infected to a non-infected host”. A typical example is the
female Anopheles mosquito that transmits malaria.
Mechanical vector: A vector which assists in the transfer of parasitic
forms between hosts but is not essential in the life cycle of the parasite.
E.g. a housefly that transfers amoebic cysts from infected feaces to
human food.
 Other important definitions
Infective Stage:- The stage of parasite at which it is capable of entering
the host and continue development within the host.
Diagnostic Stage:- A developmental stage of a pathogenic organism
that can be detected in stool, blood, urine, sputum, CSF or other human
body secretions.
Infection:- Invasion of the body by any pathogenic organism
(except )arthropods and the reaction of the hosts tissue to the presence
of the parasite or related toxins
Infestation:- The establishment of arthropods upon or within a host.
Sources of Exposure to Parasitic Infections

A. Contaminated soil:- Soils polluted with human excreta is

commonly responsible for exposure to infection with Ascaris
lumbricoides, S.stercolaris, Trichuris trichuria and hook worms

B. Insufficiently cooked meat of pork and beef which

contains infective stage of the parasite. E.g., Trichenilla
spiralis, Taenia species
Sources of Exposure to Parasitic Infections

C. Contaminated water:- Water may contain

(a) Viable cysts of Amoeba, flagellates and T. solium eggs,
(b) Cercarial stages of human blood fluke,
(c) Cyclops containing larva of Dracunculus medinesis,
(d) Fresh water fishes which are sources for fish tape worm, and
intestinal flukes infection
(e) Crab or cray fishes that are sources for lung fluke and
(f) Water plants which are sources for Fasciolopsis buski.
Sources of Exposure to Parasitic Infections
D. Transmission of Blood sucking arthropods:-These are
responsible for transmission of: e.g.,
a) Malaria parasites by female anopheles mosquito
b) Leishmania by phlebotomus
c) Trypanosoma by tsetse fly
d) Wuchreria by Culicine mosquito
Sources of Exposure to Parasitic Infections
E. Animals (a domestic or wild animals harboring the parasite):
i. Dogs are direct sources for human infection with the hydatid cyst
caused by E. granulosus and cutaneous larva migrans caused by
Toxocara canis,
ii. Herbivores animals commonly constitute the source for human infection
with Trychostrongylus species.
F. Sexual intercourse : E.g Trichomonas vaginalis
G. Autoinfection : E.g S. stercoralis, E. vermicularis, and T. solium
H. Human beings: Another person’s clothing, bedding or the immediate
environment that he contaminated are directly responsible for all or a
considerable amount of infection with a pathogenic amoeba E. histolytica,
E. vermicularis, H. nana .
Sources of Exposure to Parasitic Infections
I. Congenital from mother to foetus
J. Inhalation of dust carrying the infective stage parasites.
K. Blood transfusion and contaminated syringes and needles;-
especially for malaria
 Host Parasite Relationship
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts
In majority of cases the parasite has the capacity to produce damage.
With the advent of AIDS there is an increase in the incidence of newer
parasitic infections caused by Cryptosporidium parvum, Isospora belli
and Cyclospora cayetanensis.
Following are the ways in which the damage may be produced by the
parasites:
 Host Parasite Relationship
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts
1) Consumption of the nutritive elements of the host: Parasites like
Diphyllobothrium latum selectively removes Vitamin B12 from the host
leading to parasite induced pernicious anaemia. Iron deficiency
develops in patients with Hookworms while haemolytic anaemia
develops in patients suffering from malaria and blackwater fever.
2) Inflammatory reaction and eosinophilia: Most of the parasites
provoke cellular proliferation and infiltration at the site of their location.
There is also moderate to significant eosinophilia during such infections .
 Host Parasite Relationship
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts cont
3. Irritative reflexes (intestinal contractions: ascaris).
4. Obstruction of passages: Heavy infection with adult Ascaris and
Taenia may cause intestinal obstruction. Ascaris may occlude lumen of
the appendix or common bile duct, may cause performation of the
intestinal wall.
 Host Parasite Relationship
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts cont
5. Traumatic damage:
i. Physical damage is produced by entry of filariform larvae of
S.stercoralis, A.duodenale and N.americanus and cercarial larvae of
S.haematobium, S.mansoni and S.japonicum into the skin.
ii. Migration of several helminthic larvae through causes traumatic damage
of pulmonary capillaries leading to extravasation of blood into the lung.
iii. Damage in cerebral, retinal or renal capillaries may lead to serious
injury.
iv. Attachment of hookwarms to the intestinal wall results in traumatic
damage of the villi and oozing of blood at the site of attachment.
v. They may penetrate into the parenchyma of the liver and the lungs
 Host Parasite Relationship
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts cont
6. Bleeding e.g. Schistosomes eggs (S. haematobium, & S. mansoni)
cause extensive damage with haemarrhage as they escape from vesical
and mesenteric venules, respectively, into the lumen of the urinary
bladder and the intestinal canal
7. Lytic necrosis-
i. E. histolytica secretes lytic enzyme which lyses tissues for its nutritional
needs and also to penetrate into the tissues of the colon and
extraintestinal viscera. This causes necrosis of liver
ii. Obligate intracellular parasites e.g. Plasmodium spp., Leishmania Spp.,
Trypanosoma cruzi and Toxoplasma gondii cause necrosis of parasitized host
cells during their growth and multiplication. This results to marked
destruction of marrow elements, Plasmodium infections leads to
nephritic syndrome.
 Host Parasite Relationship
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts cont
8. Irritation of skin and tissues and allergy development
(i) bites from arthropods might cause allergic reactions.
(ii) In certain helminthic infections, the normal secretions and excretions of
the growing larvae and the products liberated from dead parasites may
give rise to various allergic manifestations e.g. Schistosomes cause
cercarial dermatitis and eosinophilia while Dranculus medinensis and
Trichinella spiralis infections cause urticaria and eosinophilia
 Host Parasite Relationship
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts cont
8. Opening path way to secondary infections e.g. Ulcer formed as a
result of D. medinensis infection exposes to Bacterial and Viral infection.
In some helminthic infections (Strongyloidiasis and ascariasis), the
migrating larvae may carry bacteria and viruses from the intestine to the
blood and tissues leading to secondary infection.
9. Depigmentation of the skin. In the case of onchocerciasis (river
blindness) the presence of the filarial worms under the skin may lead to
depigmentation due to allergic reactions.
10.Transmission of pathogens to man, e.g., lice transmitting Rickettsia
 Host Parasite Relationship
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts
12. Neoplasia and predisposition to malignancy. The parasitic infection
may contribute to the development of neoplastic growth and predispose the
host to malignancy. E.g
i. C.sinensis and Opisthorchis viverrini have been associated with
cholangiocarcinoma while
ii. S. haematobium has been associated with vesical carcinoma.
iii. E.histolytica may produce inflammation of the large intestine leading to
the formation of amoebic granuloma or amoeboma.
iv. Parasitization of fixed macrophages in the spleen, bone marrow, and
lymph nodes by L.donovani causes proliferation of reticulo-endothelial
cells
 Host Parasite Relationship
Effects of Parasites on their Hosts cont
1. Wasting (cachexia, spoliatrices);- African-trypanosomiasis and
leishmaniasis may lead to severe loss of weight in both animals and
man.
13.Chronic immune stimulation leading to unresponsiveness to
infections.
14.Compression of organs, e.g. Hydatid cysts in liver, brain cause
Pressure
15.Release of toxic substances, e.g., Rupture of E. granulosus cyst result
anaphylactic shock