3 Power and Energy Potential study [16 hours]

3.1 Processing of hydrological data, Use of extreme and

long term hydrological data, mass and elevation
volume curves, flow duration curves
3.2 Gross and net head and estimation
3.3 Reservoirs and their regulation, need for flow
regulation, Source of sediment, sediment yield in
Rivers, sediment handing in reservoirs, life of the
reservoirs
3.4 Methods of fixing installed capacity of a
hydropower plant
3.5 Estimation of Power and energy potential
3.6 Mean and peak load, load curve, load factor,
utilization and diversity factors
Hydrological data:
Hydrological data refer to the stream/river discharge. River discharge does not
remain constant over a year and from year to year. Discharge may change from
season to season and is largely dependent on rainfall. The hydrological data
required for a hydropower design are daily discharge, monthly discharge and
extreme discharges (flood and low flow).
Long Term Hydrological Data:
There is no exact definition of long term hydrological data. However, a data
series of length equal to or greater than 30 years is considered as long term
hydrological data.
Long Term Mean Flow:
The discharge data derived from long term data of any river is called long term
mean flow. Long term mean flow may be long term mean monthly flow or long
term mean daily flow.
Extreme Flow:
Extreme flow means extreme discharge, high or low. Extreme high discharge is
called flood and extreme low discharge is called low flow.
Use of Long Term Mean Flow or Mean Flow
Long term mean flow may be mean monthly flow or mean daily flow. The
uses of mean flow are as follows
1. The monthly or daily discharges to be considered for the design of
project are long term discharges. If the long term discharge is not
considered, there may be hydrological risk, i. e; risk of flow variation.
Generally, in hydropower projects, discharge is measured for it’s study
period, usually 2-5 years. However, the measured data of 2-5 years may
not be sufficient. So, the discharge considered must be long term mean
discharge.
2. To fix design discharge and installed capacity.
3. To evaluate power and energy throughout the year.
4. To determine the storage capacity of reservoir.
5. Scenario of monthly and annual flow is also useful for energy planning.
Use of Extreme Flow:
Extreme flow means flood and low flow. In hydrological study for a
hydropower project, the flood and low flow for various year return period are
estimated. The floods of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, 10000 year
return period and probable maximum flood is estimated for headworks and
powerhouse site. Similarly, low flow of different year return period (2, 5, 10,
20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, 10000 year) are also estimated.
1. The flood discharge is useful to fix the size of weirs, barrages and
spillways.
2. Flood discharge is useful to perform structural analysis of hydraulic
structures.
3. Flood discharge is useful to fix height of flood protection walls, operation
platform of gates.
4. Flood discharge is useful to fix centerline elevation of pelton turbine.
5. There is no established guideline for use of low flow in Nepal. The low
flow discharge gives information about the minimum power that will be
developed from hydropower projects in worst hydrological scenarios.
Volume Elevation Curves and Area Elevation Curves
Volume elevation curves and area elevation curves are drawn for
storage project and PRoR project. The volume elevation curve
shows the storage volume of the river channel at any elevation
and area elevation curve represents the area the reservoir would
submerge if water is stored in a reservoir corresponding to that
elevation. The volume elevation curve and area elevation curve
are prepared from the topographic survey data of the project
site. The uses of volume elevation curve and area elevation
curve can be listed as following.
1. To assess the storage capacity of reservoir for different full
supply level alternatives
2. To estimate the submergence area corresponding to
different full supply level alternatives.
3. To economize the dam height.
4. To fix dead storage level for sediments.
5. To fix flood storage volume/surcharge storage volume of a
reservoir.
6. To fix the economic capacity of reservoir.
7. To fix the operation policy of the reservoir.
8. To fix full supply level and minimum operating level of a daily
peaking reservoir.
9. To estimate the loss in fertile land, forest, infrastructures
submerged by the project.
 Volume Elevation Curve
3500.00 0.0

3000.00 10.0

20.0
2500.00
30.0
Volume, MCM

2000.00

Area, Km2
40.0
1500.00
50.0
1000.00
60.0
500.00 70.0

0.00 80.0
220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350
Elevation
Volume Area

Fig: Volume Elevation and Area Elevation Curve at Dam Site of Proposed Kaligandaki-2
Storage Hydropower Project
 Flow Duration Curve
• If the discharge data of the river is plotted with the time such that the
discharge is plotted in Y-axis and the probability of exceedance of that
discharge is plotted in X-axis, then the resulting curve is called flow
duration curve. Probability of exceedance is the percentage time at
which the flow equal to or more than the given flow is expected to occur.
Discharge

Q40
Flow Duration Curve
Q50

40 50 Probability of exceedance %
Flow Duration Curve of a Nepalese River
Flow Duration Curve Continued…………
As the probability of exceedance increases, the discharge decreases.
Uses of the Flow Duration Curve:
1. To know the variation of the discharge pattern in the river.
2. To Assess the primary and the secondary power that can be generated
from the river.
3. To fix the designed discharge for any Run of River or Storage Plants.
4. To fix the installed capacity for any hydropower plant.
5. To calculate the storage volume required for the storage projects.
6. Flow duration curve is used to select the number and the types of
turbines.
7. After generating the flow duration curve, we can assess the different
capacities that can be generated from the given river source. It helps us
to select the suitable option among them as which is suitable for the
power market or the energy demand.
8. Flow duration curve is the primary parameter which helps a decision
maker to formulate plans regarding the development of hydropower
projects,.
9. Flow duration curve can be combined with the sediment data which is
very much useful to access the sediment load that is expected to enter
the reservoir of any storage project.
Design Discharge:
• The discharge at which the given hydropower is designed is the design
discharge. It is different than the discharge available in the river. It is the
maximum discharge which the turbines of the hydropower plants can
withdraw (except the case of overloading). It is fixed either by the
economic considerations (mostly) or by the other requirements (like the
requirements of the power demand, plant type, etc).
• The installed capacity of a plant is fixed based on the design discharge.
Installed capacity, P = η*γ *Q*H,
where, η = efficiency,
γ = specific weight of water
Q = design discharge
H = Head
Installed Capacity:
• The maximum power that can be generated from a particular power
plant is called installed capacity. It is the most economical capacity
of the plant, i. e; the benefit from the plant is optimum if the plant
capacity is fixed at installed capacity. A pant can not generate more
power than the installed capacity. The installed capacity of a plant
can be calculated by:
• Installed capacity, P = η*γ *Q*H,
where, η = efficiency,
γ = specific weight of water
Q = design discharge
H = Head
Power Duration Curve:
• The curve obtained by plotting the power generated on Y-Axis and
the probability of exceedance of that power on X-Axis is called the
power duration curve. The power duration curve is similar to the
flow duration curve. The power duration curve for a RoR project is a
declining curve because the discharge in the river does not remain
constant all the time and the discharge decreases with increase in
probability of exceedance. The power duration curve of a storage
projects is also a declining curve because although the discharge
can be maintained in a storage project, the head shows the
fluctuation due to change in reservoir level.
Power The Power Duration Curve of Storage and RoR Project

Power Duration Curve for a Storage Project

Power Duration Curve for a RoR Project

Probability of exceedance

The figure shows that the power produced from a RoR project changes
drastically after certain time whereas the power generated from storage
project also decreases but ay very slow rate. A comparison of power
duration curve for a storage project and RoR project constructed on the
same river is shown on above figure. A power duration curve is also
generated on the same way as flow duration curve.
Firm Power/Primary Power:
• The power, which can be produced from the plant in any time of the year is called firm
power. It is the minimum power which can be produced from the plant.
Secondary Power:
• The power which can be produced from the plant in excess of the firm power is called
secondary power. The plant can deliver secondary power for only a certain part of a year.
• Secondary power = Actual power – primary power.
Firm Energy:
• The energy, which can be produced from the plant in one year if the plant operates at the
firm power for whole year is called firm energy. It is equal to the firm power multipiled
with one year.
• Firm Energy = Firm power * 1 year
Secondary Energy:
• The energy, which is in excess to the firm energy is called secondary energy.
• Secondary Energy is equal to the total energy minus the firm energy. Secondary energy =
Total Energy- Firm Energy
Spill Energy:
• The energy, which is in excess to the demand is called the spill energy. When the total
energy in the grid is more than the demand, then it is called spill energy. The energy will
spill during the wet season when all the plants run at full capacity.
• Also in other terms, the energy of river water that had not been utilized is called spill
energy.
Load Curve:
Load
• There is basic difference between the load and demand. Load is the power that the generator
has to produce in order to meet the power requirements. In electrical terms, a load can be a fan,
heater, bulb,etc.
• Demand will be equal to load if the power supply is sufficient to meet the demand.
• Load curve is the curve showing load and time. The daily load curve in Nepalease power system
shows peak during morning and evening as compared to the day and night. This is mainly
because, the major load in Nepal is the domestic load. If there are sufficient industries that run
during the day time, the load curve would show the peak during the day time.
The typical load curve of Nepal is shown in the figure above. The load
curve shows the hourly variation of load within a day. The load curve
of Nepal as recorded by Integrated National Power System(INPS) is
shown in following slides.
Types of Load Variation:
1. Daily Load Variation: The variation of load within a day is called daily load
variation. The load in Nepalease power system is more in morning and evening than
the days and night. The evening peak is more than the morning peak.
2. Weekly Variation: The variation of load within a day of week is called weekly
variation. Normally, the load is more in Saturday than other days of the week.
3. Monthly Variation: The variation of load in different months is called monthly
variation. The load is more in the winter months as compared to other months.
4. Seasonal Variation: The variation of load in the seasons is called seasonal
variation. The load is more in the winter season than other seasons.
Plant Outage: Plant outage is the situation when the power plant remains shut.
Outage may be of two types.
a) Planned Outage: The outage which is already known is called planned outage. It
is scheduled outage for settlilng basin flushing, maintenance of the
electromechanical works, etc.
b) Forced Outage: The forced outages are emergency outages. This type of outage
occurs suddenly due to the huge problem in the system like failure of transmission
line, damage of headworks, etc. The forced outage is emergency situation and it
causes huge loss to the system.
Important Terms and Factors:
(i) Connected load: It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment
connected to supply system. A power station supplies load to thousands of
consumers. Each consumer has certain equipment installed in his premises.
The sum of the continuous ratings of all the equipment in the consumer’s
premises is the “connected load” of the consumer. For instance, if a consumer
has connections of five 100-watt lamps and a power point of 500 watts, then
connected load of the consumer is 5 × 100 + 500 = 1000 watts. The sum of
the connected loads of all the consumers is the connected load to the power
station.
(ii)Maximum demand: It is the greatest demand of load on the power station
during a given period. The load on the power station varies from time to
time. The maximum of all the demands that have occurred during a given
period (say a day) is the maximum demand. Maximum demand is generally
less than the connected load because all the consumers do not switch on
their connected load to the system at a time. The knowledge of maximum
demand is very important as it helps in determining the installed capacity of
the station. The station must be capable of meeting the maximum demand.
(iii) Demand factor: It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station
to its connected load i.e;
Demand factor = Maximum demand/Connected load . The value of demand factor
is usually less than [Link] is expected because maximum demand on the power
station is generally less than the connected load. If the maximum demand on the
power station is 80 MW and the connected load is 100 MW, then demand factor =
80/100 = 0·[Link] knowledge of demand factor is vital in determining the capacity
of the plant equipment
(iv) Average load: The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given
period (day or month or year) is known as average load or average demand.
Average load = Total energy consumed within a time period/time
V) Load factor: The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given
period is known as load factor i.e.,
Load factor = average load/peak load
The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor
if the time period considered is a day or month or year. Load factor is always less
than 1 because the average load is smaller than the maximum demand. The load
factor plays a key role in determining the overall cost per unit generated. Higher
the load factor of the power station, lesser will be the cost per unit generated.
vi) Diversity factor: The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to
the maximum demand on power station is known as diversity factor
i.e., diversity factor = sum of individual maximum demands/maximum
demand on the power station
vii) Plant factor or capacity factor: It is the ratio of actual energy produced to
the maximum possible energy that could have been produced during a given
period. In other words, it is the ratio of average load to the installed capacity.
i.e. plant/capacity factor = average load/installed capacity
viii) Reserve capacity: It is the difference between installed capacity and peak
load. Reserve capacity = Installed capacity – peak load
Reserve capacity factor = installed capacity/peak load.
Utilization factor = peak load/installed capacity
Relation between load factor, utilization factor factor and plant factor
Plant factor = Load factor*Utilization Factor
2075 Chaitra/1a
Given,
Head = 30 m
Q = 25 cumecs
Load factor = 65 %
η = 60 %
Peak load hours = 4 hr
The power that is produced with given discharge of 25 cumecs is considered as average
load.
Laverage = ηүQH = 0.6*9.81*25*30 = 4414.5 KW = 4.41 MW
The peak load can be estimated by:
Load Factor =
So, Peak load = 4.41/0.65 = 6.79 MW
The question does not speak about the reserve capacity to be provided. So, we assume
the installed capacity of the plant or the capacity of generator should be 6.79 MW.
Second Part:
No. of peak hours = 4
Let Qpeak = Discharge required during peak hours.
So, Peak Load = ηү Qpeak *H
Or, 6.79*1000 = 0.6*9.81* Qpeak *30
Or, Qpeak = 38.45 m3/sec
Defficient discharge during peak hours
= 38.45 – 25
= 13.45 m3/sec
The storage volume required for 4 hours
= 13.45*4*3600
= 193680 m3
2076 Aswin 1a

Solution: Q = 40 m3/sec
ηturbine = 80 %, ηgenerator = 90 %
Overall efficiency, η =80%*90% = 72%
The day when the most storage is required is Sunday. In Sunday the storage required is
categorized as follows.
1. Discharge of Saturday is stored. The volume would be
V1 = 40*24*3600 = 3.45 Mm3
2. The inflow discharge within Sunday is also non uniform. So, the volume required to adress
this fluctuation is:
V2 = 30 % of volume of inflow
= 0.3*40*24*3600
=1.04 Mm3
3. Supply discharge is not uniform as the plant is supplying at load factor of 50 %. For this
supply variation, the storage is required.
Mean flow to the turbine = daily flow + discharge of Saturday allocated for a particular day
= 40 + = 46.67 m3/sec
Storage required, V3 = 0.2*46.67*24*3600 = 0.806 Mm3
The total storage required for Saturday is V = V1 + V2 + V3 = 5.3 Mm3
Allowable fluctuation = 1 m
If A is the surface area, then
A*1 = 5.3*106
Or A = 5.3 Km2 = 530 hectares
Average Output:
Average flow to the turbine = 46.67 cumecs
Average head = =24.5 m
Average power produced = P = ηүQH = 0.72*9.81*46.67*24.5 =
8076.16 KW
The weekly energy output = 8076.16*6 days = 8076.16*6*24 =
1.16*106 KW-h
2075 Aswin 3a

Solution:
Q = 30 m3/sec
H = 70 m
η = 85 %
a) i) if the plant is designed as pure RoR plant
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*30*70/1000 = 17.51 MW
a) ii) let x = design discharge of the single unit.
Peak hours = 6hr
Off peak hours = 18 hr
Available continuous flow = 30 m3/sec
The amount of water that will be stored during off peak hours
= (30-x)*18*3600
The amount of water lost in evaporation = 5 % of (30-x)*18*3600
The amount of water actually stored = 95 % of (30-x)*18*3600
Discharge available for peak hours
= 30 +
= 30 + 2.85(30-x)
But actually two units are running with design discharge of x m3/sec
So, 30 + 2.85(30-x) = 2x
Or x = 23.81 m3/sec
The total discharge the plant will utilize during peak hours = 2x = 2*23.81 = 47.62
m3/sec
Therefore, installed capacity of the plant = ηүQH
= 0.85*9.81*47.62*70/1000 = 27.8 MW
Solution:
Q = 30 cumecs
H = 70 m
η=85%
a. Case 1
Considering the plant as pure RoR
Power generated,
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*20*70/1000 = 17.51 MW
b. Case b
Considering the plant as PRoR plant
Peaking hours = 6 hrs
Off-Peaking hours = 24-6 = 18 hrs
Let, the design discharge of a single unit is x m3/sec
The volume of water stored in off peak hours
= (30-x)*18*60*60 (Because single unit is running
at x m3/sec, 30-x m3/sec will be stored).
= 64800(30-x) m3
The volume of water lost = 5 % of stored water
= 0.05*64800(30-x) m3 = 3240*(30-x) m3
Volume of water that will be available for peak
hours = 64800(30-x) m3 -3240*(30-x) m3
= 61560* (30-x) m3
The discharge that the plant is using during peak
hours = 2x m3/sec (Because two units are running)
Volume available for peaking hours = volume
due to continuous flow + stored water volume
2x*6*60*60 = 30*6*60*60+ 61560(30-x)
Or, x = 23.81 m3/sec
Therefore design discharge of the plant = 2x
= 2*23.81 = 47.62 m3/sec
The installed capacity of the plant as PRoR
= P = ɳүQH = 0.85*9.81*47.62*70/1000
= 27.79 MW
Mean inflow volume
= 6671/12 = 555.92 MCM (MCM = 106 m3)
See the monthly deficit in the table.
Total deficit = 1802.44 MCM
Therefor storage capacity of the reservoir =
1802.44 MCM
 3 b solution
Month Inflow volume (106 Demand Deficit
m3)
1 296 555.92 259.92
2 386 555.92 169.92
3 504 555.92 51.92
4 714 555.92 -
5 810 555.92 -
6 1154 555.92 -
7 746 555.92 -
8 1158 555.92 -
9 348 555.92 207.92
10 150 555.92 405.92
11 223 555.92 332.92
12 182 555.92 273.92
Total Inflow Vol. 6671 Total deficit 1802.44 MCM
 Desc. Rank Exc.
order Prob.
Month t Qt
1 8.33
oct 1 94.3 329.5
nov 2 59.7 252.2 2 16.67
dec 3 36.4 186.1 3 25
jan 4 24.3 131.2 4 33.33
feb 5 23.3 94.3 5 41.67
mar 6 33.5 87.4 6 50
apr 7 54.9 59.7 7 58.33
may 8 87.4 54.9 8 66.67
jun 9 131.2 36.4 9 75
jul 10 186.1 33.5 10 83.33
aug 11 252.2 24.3 11 91.67
sep 12 329.5 23.3 12 100
Calculation of Q40
1. Arrange the discharge data in descending order.
2. Assign rank to the discharge data. Provide rank 1
to the highest discharge.
3. Probability of exceedance = *100 %
4. Interpolate for Q40
5. Q33.33 = 131.2 cumecs, Q41.67 = 94.3
By interpolation, Q40 = 101.7 m3/sec
So, the design discharge is 101.7 m3/sec
Installed capacity,
P = ɳүQH = 0.85*9.81*101.7*150/1000 =127.2 MW
Firm Capacity = minimum capacity
Minimum capacity will be obtained with minimum
discharge
Qmin = 23.3 cumecs
Firm capacity = ɳү* Qmin *H
= 0.85*9.81*23.3*150/1000
= 29.14 MW
Firm energy = energy produced in 1 year if the
plant runs at firm capacity.
= 29.14MW*1year
= 29.14/1000 GW*365*24 hr = 255.27 GW-hr
b. Solution
Available flow = Q40 = 101.7 cumecs
Peaking hours = 6 hours
Off-peak hours = 18 hours
Discharge that will be stored during off-peak hours = 50 % of 101.7 =
50.85 cumecs
Volume stored during off peak hours = 50.85*18*3600 = 3.29*10 6 m3
Additional discharge in the peak hours due to stored water
= = 152.55 m3/sec
Therefore design discharge = 101.7 +152.55
= 254.25 m3/sec
So, the installed capacity,
P = ɳүQH = 0.85*9.81*254.25*150/1000
= 318 MW
2070 Chaitra
 Rank Exc. Prob. Flow for Power, No. Energy, Power Energy
power MW of GW-hr Potential Potenti
generati days of river al of
on river
Desc.
Month Discharge Order
8.33 100 83.39 31 62.04 83.39 62.04
Jan 100 2500 1
16.67 120 100.06 28 67.24 100.06 67.24
Feb 120 2100 2
25 140 116.73 31 86.85 116.73 86.85
Mar 140 2000 3
33.33 300 250.16 30 180.11 250.16 180.11
Apr 300 1800 4
41.67 320 266.83 31 198.52 266.83 198.52
May 320 900 5
50 1080.2 900.72 30 648.52 1500.93 1080.7
Jun 1800 500 6
58.33 1080.2 900.72 31 670.14 1667.7 1240.8
Jul 2000 320 7
66.67 1080.2 900.72 31 670.14 2084.6 1551
Aug 2500 300 8
75 1080.2 900.72 30 648.52 1751.1 1260.8
Sep 2100 300 9
83.33 900 750.46 31 558.35 750.46 558.35
Oct 900 140 10
91.67 500 416.93 30 300.19 416.93 300.19
Nov 500 120 11
100 300 250.16 31 186.12 250.16 186.12
Dec 300 100 12
Total Energy, GW-hr 4276.74
i.
Calculation of Q40
Q33.33 = 1800
Q41.67 = 900
By interpolation,
Q40 = 1080.21 cumecs
a. RoR operation Mode at Q40
Power generated, P = ηүQH
For January,
P = 0.85*9.81*100*100/1000
= 83.39 MW
For September,
P = 0.85*9.81*1080.2*100/1000 = 900.72
Energy Generated = Power*time
For January,
Energy = 83.39/1000*31*24 GW-hr = 62.04 GW-hr
For September,
Energy = 900.72/1000*30*24 = 648.52GW-hr
Firm Energy = firm power*1 year = minimum power*1 year
= 83.39/1000 * 365*24 = 730.5 GW-hr
Total Energy = 4276.74 GW-hr
Installed capacity = Maximum of the power generated = 900.72 MW
b. If the whole water of river is utilized as RoR Plant:
Power potential of the river will be same as the power produced as RoR for following
months.
Jan, feb, march, april, may, oct, nov, dec.
For June, July, August and September, the plant did not utilize the total available flow in
river.
For September, the power potential
= P = ɳ*ү*Q*H
= 0.85*9.81*2100*100/1000 = 1751.1 MW
Energy potential for september = power*time
= 1751.1/1000*30*24 = 1260.8 GW-hr
Total annual energy potential of the river
= sum of energy potential of all months
= 6772.72 GW-Hr
Alternatively, the energy potential of river may be estimated by:
Average flow: Qavg =
=
= 927.17 cumecs
Average annual power
= 0.85*9.81*927.17*100/1000
= 773.12 MW
Annual energy potential
= Average power*1 year
= 773.12/1000* 365*24
= 6772.59 GW-Hr
Spill Energy = Annual energy potential of river – Energy produced from given
RoR plant
= 6772.72 – 4276.74 (We used the energy calculated from Table for energy
potential)
= 2495.98 GW-hr
ii) For a storage project with full regulation of annual
hydrograph,
Design discharge = average monthly flow
=
= 923.33 cumecs
Therefore, installed capacity
= 0.85*9.81*923.33*100/1000 MW
= 769.92 MW
Storage requirement/volume = Cumulative of deficits
= 12307.62 MCM
iii) Annual energy generation
= 6744.5 GW-Hr
 Flow for Power, No. Energy, Deficit Deficit
power MW of GW-hr Discharge Volume
generatio days MCM
n
Month Discharge
Jan 100 923.33 769.92 31 572.82 823.33 2205.21
Feb 120 923.33 769.92 28 517.39 803.33 1943.42
Mar 140 923.33 769.92 31 572.82 783.33 2098.07
923.33 769.92 30
Apr 300 554.34 623.33 1615.67
923.33 769.92 31
May 320 572.82 603.33 1615.96
Jun 1800 923.33 769.92 30 554.34
Jul 2000 923.33 769.92 31 572.82
Aug 2500 923.33 769.92 31 572.82
Sep 2100 923.33 769.92 30 554.34
923.33 769.92 31
Oct 900 572.82 23.33 62.49
923.33 769.92 30
Nov 500 554.34 423.33 1097.27
923.33 769.92 31
Dec 300 572.82 623.33 1669.53
Total Energy, GW-hr 6744.5 Storage 12307.61
Vol.
2072/Chaitra/ 3
Solution:
ɳturbine = 0.93, ɳhydraulic = 0.95, ɳgenerator = 0.99, ɳtransformer = 0.99
Overall efficiency, ɳ = 0.93*0.95*0.99 *.99 = 0.865 = 0.87
Design Discharge = 18 m3/sec
Sample for January
Flow available for power = 4.06 m3/sec
Total Head loss = 0.63
Gross Head = 600 m
Net Head = 600-0.63 = 599.37 m
Power, P = ɳ*ү*Q*H
= 0.87*9.81*4.06*599.37/1000
= 20.77 MW
Energy = Power*Time
= 20.77/1000*31*24 GW-Hr
= 15.45 GW-Hr
Installed Capacity = 90.27 MW
Firm/Primary Power = 15.66 MW
Firm/Primary Energy = Firm/Primary Power*1 year
= 15.66/1000*365*24
= 137.18 GW-hr
Secondary Energy
= Total Energy – Firm Energy
= 456.7 – 137.18
= 319.52 GW-Hr
Plant Factor =
=
= = 0.58
In other way, Average load =
= = 52.13 MW
Therefore, plant factor =
= 52.13/90.27 = 0.58
 Energy Table
Month Discharg d/s Flow for Net Power No of Energy
e release power Head Days
Jan 4.4 0.34 4.06 599.37 20.77 31 15.45
Feb 3.9 0.34 3.56 599.51 18.22 28 12.24
Mar 3.4 0.34 3.06 599.64 15.66 31 11.65
Apr 4.2 0.34 3.86 599.43 19.75 30 14.22
May 5.6 0.34 5.26 598.94 26.89 31 20.01
June 16.5 0.34 16.16 589.99 81.37 30 58.59
July 78.1 0.34 18 587.58 90.27 31 67.16
Aug 108.9 0.34 18 587.58 90.27 31 67.16
Sep 52.8 0.34 18 587.58 90.27 30 64.99
Oct 22 0.34 18 587.58 90.27 31 67.16
Nov 9.9 0.34 9.56 596.50 48.67 30 35.04
Dec 6.4 0.34 6.06 598.59 30.96 31 23.03
Total Energy in GW-Hr 456.7
 Head Loss calculation is shown in following table
Given Data:
ftunnel 0.014 Ltunnel 4Km Dtunnel 3m
fpenstock 0.012 Lpenstock 1Km Dpenstock 2.2m
Gross Head = FSL - Turbine Center Level 600m
Total Head Net
Month Flow for power Vtunnel hftunnel Vpenstock hfpenstock
Loss, hf Head

Jan 4.06 0.57 0.31 1.07 0.32 0.63 599.37

Feb 3.56 0.50 0.24 0.94 0.24 0.49 599.51
Mar 3.06 0.43 0.18 0.81 0.18 0.36 599.64
Apr 3.86 0.55 0.28 1.02 0.29 0.57 599.43
May 5.26 0.74 0.53 1.38 0.53 1.06 598.94
Jun 16.16 2.29 4.98 4.25 5.03 10.01 589.99
Jul 18 2.55 6.18 4.74 6.24 12.42 587.58
Aug 18 2.55 6.18 4.74 6.24 12.42 587.58
Sep 18 2.55 6.18 4.74 6.24 12.42 587.58
Oct 18 2.55 6.18 4.74 6.24 12.42 587.58
Nov 9.56 1.35 1.74 2.52 1.76 3.50 596.50
Dec 6.06 0.86 0.70 1.59 0.71 1.41 598.59
b. Development option as PRoR with 4 hour peaking
If the plant is 4 hr peaking, it has to provide peak power for 4
hours in the month when flow in the river is minimum, i. e, in the
month of march.
Calculation of Storage Capacity of Reservoir
Design discharge = 18 cumecs
Available flow for power in the month of march = 3.06 cumecs
Peak hours = 4 hrs
Deficit discharge = 18 – 3.06 = 14.94 cumecs
Storage volume = Deficit discharge*Peaking Time
= 14.94*4*3600
= 215136 m3
= 0.22 MCM
Q. For the following data of flow at a given area for an average
year, compute and draw the power duration curve. Assume an
average net head available on the turbine is 10 m and combined
efficiency is 89 %. Determine the primary and secondary energy
available during a year if the plant capacity is fixed at power
corresponding to flow available for 40 % of time.

Month Jan Feb Mar April May June

Q, 37 35 31 25 19 37
m3/sec
Month July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Q, 65 84 62 51 44 41
m3/sec
Calculation of Q40
Q33.33 = 51
Q41.67 = 44
By interpolation,
Q40 = 45.4 cumecs
Power and Energy Calculation Sample
Power generated for 0-8.33 % excedance flow,
P = ɳүQH = 0.89*9.81*45.4*10/1000 = 3.96 MW
The power generated is same for 8.33-16.67, 16.67-25, 25-33.33, 33.33-40 % of time is
same as above, 3.96 MW.
Power for Q41.67 = ɳүQH
= 0.89*9.81*44*10/1000 = 3.84 MW
E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 = Power*Time = 3.96 MW * 8.33 % of a year
= 3.96/1000* 8.33/100*365*24 GW-Hr
= 2.89 GW-Hr
E5 = Power*Time = 3.96 MW*6.67 % of a year
= 3.96/1000* 6.67/100*365*24
= 2.31 GW-Hr
Note: for E6 to E13 we have to calculate average power.
E6 = Average Power*Time
= (3.96+3.84)/2 MW * 1.67 % of a year
= 3.9/1000*1.67/100*365*24 GW-Hr
= 0.57 GW-Hr
E7 = Average Power*Time
= (3.84+3.57)/2 MW * 8.33 % of a year
= 3.84+3.57)/2 *8.33/100*365*24 GW-Hr
= 2.7 GW-Hr

Total energy = 29.55 GW-Hr

Firm Power = Minimum Power = 1.65 MW
Firm Energy = Firm Power*1Year
= 1.65 MW*1 Year
= 1.65/1000*365*24 GW-Hr
= 14.45 GW-Hr
Secondary Energy = Total energy – Firm Energy
= 29.55 – 14.45 = 15.1 GW-Hr
Solution Probablity of Exceedance Method
Month Flow Desc. Rank Exc. Dischar Power, Energy, GW-hr
(m /sec) Order
3
Prob. ge for MW
Power
Jan 37 84 1 8.33 45.4 3.96 2.89
Feb 35 65 2 16.67 45.4 3.96 2.89
Mar 31 62 3 25 45.4 3.96 2.89
April 25 51 4 33.33 45.4 3.96 2.89
40 45.4 3.96 2.31
May 19 44 5 41.67 44 3.84 0.57
June 37 41 6 50 41 3.57 2.70
July 65 37 7 58.33 37 3.23 2.48
August 84 37 8 66.67 37 3.23
2.36
Sept 62 35 9 75 35 3.06 2.29
Oct 51 31 10 83.33 31 2.7 2.10
Nov 44 25 11 91.67 25 2.18 1.78
Dec 41 19 12 100 19 1.65 1.40
Total Energy, GW-hr 29.55
 Power, MW

8.33
E1
8.33 3.96

16.67
E2 3.96
E3 3.96
25.00

8.33 8.33 8.33

33.33
E4 3.96

6.67
40 E5 3.96

1.67
41.67
E6 3.84

50 8.33 E7
3.57
58.33 E8 3.23
E9
8.33 8.33

66.67 323
is same

E10
8.33

75 3.06
E11
83.33 2.7
E12
are same because the

91.67 2.18
power and time interval

E13
The energy E1, E2, E3, E4

8.33 8.33

100 1.65
% Time
Reservoir and Storage Zones of Reservoir
Normal Pool Level or Maximum Conservation Level: It is the
maximum elevation upto which reservoir water level will rise
during normal operating conditions. This is the designed storage
level.
Mimimum Operating Level: The lowest water surface level
which has to be kept under normal operating conditions. The
water level should not fall below this level.
Maximum Pool Level or Full Reservoir Level: The maximum
water level upto which the water rises during the worst design
flood is called maximum pool level.
Useful Storage: The volume of water stored between minimum
pool normal pool level is called useful storage or active storage
or live storage.
Dead Storage: Water stored in the reservoir below dead storage
level is called dead storage.
Surcharge Storage: The volume of water stored between normal pool
level and maximum pool level is called surcharge storage. It is also
called flood storage.
Buffer Storage: The amount of storage between dead storage level and
minimum pool level is called buffer storage. This storage is for
submergence of intake.
Bank Storage: When the reservoir is filled up, certain amount of water
seeps into the permeable reservoir banks. This is called bank storage.
This storage increases the capacity of reservoir.
Valley Storage: Even before dam is constructed, certain amount of
water is stored in the stream channel called valley storage. After the
reservoir is formed, the storage increases and the actual net increase in
the storage is equal to the storage capacity of reservoir minus the
natural valley storage. The valley storage thus reduces the effective
storage of reservoir.
Effective storage for flood mitigation = useful storage + surcharge
storage – valley storage
 The following figure shows different storage zones of reservoir.

Maximum Pool Level or High Reservoir Level

Surcharge Storage
Normal Pool Level or Maximum Conservation Level

Useful Storage/Live Storage/Active Storage

Va
ll ey Minimum Pool Level Dead Storage Level
S to Buffer Storage
ra
ge
R iv
er b Dead Storage Dam
ed
Reservoir Sedimentation
Reservoir sedimentation is a difficult problem economical solution of
which has not yet been developed except by providing a bit greater
dead storage to accommodate the sediment deposit during the life of
the reservoir.
River water normally carries certain amount of silt eroded from the
catchment during heavy rain or due to the high velocity of runoff over
the ground.
The extent of erosion, i. e; silt or sediment load the river water carries
depends on:
a. Nature of soil of watershed
b. Topography of the watershed
c. Vegetation cover of the watershed .
d. Intensity of rainfall, i.e., higher intensity produces higher run-off or
high velocity which erodes and carries silt along with water.
e. Soil conservation and watershed management methods adopted in
the catchment
Reservoir Sedimentation
• The sediment transported may be bed load or suspended load. When river
water with sediment-laden water approaches the reservoir, the velocity
decreases due to greater area. Due to this reduction of velocity, coarser
particles settle in head reaches of the river and while suspended and finer
particles take sufficient time to settle just upstream of the dam. A part of
finer particles may pass through sluice ways to turbines or spillways.
Density currents (stratified flows) in reservoir
Density currents or stratified flows may be defined as gravity flow of
fluid under fluid of lighter density or over fluid of heavier density.
Water stored in the reservoir is clear with lighter density whereas
inflow to the reservoir is muddy and the fluid upstream of reservoir
have two different densities.
The heavy turbid water flows along the channel bottom towards the
dam under gravity slowly in the form of density currents or stratified
flows. This is called reservoir stratification.
Thus, in reservoir, density current is the current or velocity of heavy
density liquid with low velocity below a liquid of lighter density.
The rate of silting or sedimentation may be reduced considerably if the
density current is vented by proper location and operation of outlets
called scouring sluices
Control of sediment in reservoir
The following are some points to be considered to control
sediment flow in the reservoir.
Proper selection of reservoir site
Reservoir should be located upstream of a tributary which
carries large sediment load.
Control of sediment inflow
Series of small low dams in sandy river should be constructed to
arrest the sediment upstream reservoir.
Vegetation cover
The vegetation cover upstream of reservoir site and on the
catchment area arrests large sediment amount. Hence, proper
care for growth of vegetation is necessary.
Soil conservation methods
Soil conservation methods like cover and strip cropping, contour farming, crop rotations,
control over grazing lands, terracing, benching on steep hill slopes, small embankments
prevent erosion and arrest sedimentation.

Removal of deposited sediment

Sediments deposited may be removed be excavation, draining and flushing by sluices after
disturbing the sediment by some mechanical and hydraulic method.
Removal by sluices during flood time
Sediment inflow with flood water is more. If sluices are provided at various levels of the
dam. sediments in suspension may be removed by opening the sluices during flood time
directly, thereby not allowing sufficient time to settle these sediments at reservoir bed.
Construction of dam in stages
Initially dam is designed for lower depth. When a part of it gets silted height of the dam is
raised to prolong the life of reservoir

Afforestation and control of deforestation

Construction of check dams

Construction of check dams in series in upstream tributaries of the river having huge
sediment content. Also special treatment for landslide and debris flow area by constructing
series of check dams in channel.
Effect of sediment on reservoir function
Loss of storage and service
It affects the useful life of reservoir and directly affects the services dependent
upon the water storage.
Sediment deposition at outlet gate
Deposition of sediment is an important consideration in location of scouring
sluices. It is difficult to locate the position without prior model study of the dam,
reservoir in similar catchment.
Aggradation of reservoir
Deposition of sediment upstream of reservoir is a common problem. These
deposited sediments form an inflow section in the shape of a delta which reduces
the inflow capacity to rese creating upstream of the river.
Degradation below reservoir Outflow from the scouring sluices, overfall spillway
has sufficient tractive or sediment transporting force. This tractive force causes
initiation of motion of sediment downstream of the dam. Thus degradation of the
channel below the dam takes place.
Trap efficiency of reservoir
Trap efficiency is a measure of sedimentation of reservoir. It is
defined as the percentage of sediment retained in reservoir to
the sediment transported the reservoir by the stream/stream. It
indicates the percentage of sediment deposited in the reservoir
even inspire of taking precautions and measures to control its
deposition.
Trap efficiency =
It is found by experimental analysis that this trap efficiency 95
per cent to 100 depends on the following factors.
a. Capacity-inflow ratio:
It is the ratio of reservoir capacity to the total water inflow.
b. Silt gradation:
Larger the sit gradation in size, higher is the trap efficiency.
Method of reservoir operation:
Correct location of scouring sluices may decrease trap
efficiency.
c. Shape of reservoir:
When shape of the reservoir is diverging type towards the
dam, deposition of sediment is more.
d. Age of reservoir:
With increase in age, catchment becomes stable, sediment
transportation decreases and best trap efficiency is less
Capacity inflow ratio against trap efficiency:
Capacity-inflow ratio is the ratio of capacity of reservoir to the total
inflow of water into the reservoir.
Capacity-inflow ratio=

This ratio is an important parameter of reservoir as the trap efficiency

is a function of capacity inflow ratio. If the reservoir is small and inflow
is more, most of the inflow passes downstream as the detention time
is small, allowing no time for sediment to settle i. e. trap efficiency is
very small. On the other hand, large reservoir allows more time for
sediment to settle making trap efficiency large.

Brunt in (1953), presented graphically a relationship between these

two, i.e., trap efficiency and capacity inflow ratio analyzing data from
some existing reservoir. This graph is called trap efficiency vs capacity
inflow curve (Figure 5-8). Figure shows that the trap efficiency reduces
with decrease in capacity inflow ratio.
As the sediment gets deposited in the reservoir, the storage
capacity of the reservoir decreases whereas the inflow to the
reservoir remains constant. Consequently, the amount of sediment
trapped in the reservoir becomes less year by year. silting rate in the
reservoir shall be more in the beginning and as the capacity reduces
with time silting rare decreases. Therefore, complete reservoir
silting may take longer period.
Useful life of reservoir and its estimation
The dead storage in a reservoir is provided to accommodate the
sediment. But when the sediment inflow is more, dead storage
within few years gets fully silted. Even sediment begins to encroach
the useful storage. This encroachment of sediment depends on
1) capacity-inflow ratio
2) sediment size and content in the flow
3) reservoir operation.
4) characteristics of the valley, etc.
The useful life of reservoir is said to exist till the useful storage is reduced to
20 per cent of the designed capacity. Reservoir sediment at the beginning is
higher. When the whole catchment. becomes stable, inflow of sediment
decreases with years due to fall in trap eficiency and shrinkage of sediment
and formation of delta. The estimation of useful life of reservoir is made by:
a. Working out the capacity-inflow ratio in percentage and finding annual
loss factor for settlement and consolidation of deposited capacity.
b. Finding the correction which is about 15 per cent of the total over a
period of 200 yrs.
c. Working out trap efficiency ratio for different reservoir capacity, which
may from graphs or tables
d. Ascertaining the total load for a given period, capacity curves are
determined of 25, 50, 75, 100 years, etc. then check up the quantity of
water in different reservoir.
e. A plot may be developed to show the available capacity in different res
capacity against time period. From this plot it becomes easy to evaluate
the failure period of the project to meet the minimum basic demand as
originally fixed and the taken as useful life of reservoir
Reservoir losses
There are mainly three types of losses in the reservoir Evaporation losses ,
Absorption losses and Reservoir leakage or percolation losses
a. Evaporation losses:
These are the major losses from a reservoir. This loss is affects surface of the
reservoir, wind speed, temperature, relative humidity etc. Evaporation loss is
usually expressed in mm of water depth and varies from place to place
depending upon the local condition, temperature, relative humidity and wind
etc.
b. Absorption losses:
This loss of water is considerable in the beginning but falls after sometime when
pores get saturated. These losses depend upon the soil forming the reservoir.
c. Reservoir leakage or percolation losses:
Reservoirs being very large, the soil in the reservoir area is permeable. But the
permeability of the soil generally very low but the bank made of badly fractured
rocks or having continuous stream of pores strata may causes serious leakage.
So site should be property investigated and such things should be rectified
Reservoir regulation
• It is defined as the rational distribution of a river flow in time
and space among different fields of resource system such as
irrigation, Hydropower, Recreation, Navigation, Water Supply
etc.
• Multipurpose reservoir need to be operated and regulated
efficiently with a high degree of intelligence, institution, and
experience, in order to ensure that they are neither left
partially empty by the end of rainy season, nor they are found
full at the time of arrival of a series of peak floods leading to
heavy releases, causing flood in the downstream valley.
Maximum water level (MWL):
Maximum level to which the surface will rise when the design
flood
Minimum water level (MIWL):
The lowest level up to which the water is withdrawn from the
reservoir passes over the spillway under ordinary condition. The
storage below the minimum pool level is not useful and is called
dead storage, The volume of water between normal water level
and minimum water level is useful volume and known as useful
storage or live storage.
Water is utilized by two groups (i) consumer groups, such as
water supply, irrigation and (ii) Non consumer groups, such as
hydropower, navigation.
Rule curve or Guide curve:
Guiding tables and curves which are developed in advance, and kept ready
for use for the efficient regulation of reservoir waters, with time, are called
rule curve or guide curve. Such guiding curves are normally required only for
flood season, because for the rest year, the reservoir will only discharge water
for hydropower, irrigation and other purpose. Multipurpose reservoir
(irrigation, hydropower, flood control) is operated considering following
reservoir regulation principles: The water level in the reservoir will normally
fluctuate between the normal pool level and minimum pool level. The storage
between these two limits of water level, will be maximum conservation of
water which is sufficient for satisfying the irrigation need.

As water level in the reservoir shall not be allowed to go below the minimum
pool level, the firm commitments for power will continue to generate upto
this level of water.
Normal floods will be absorbed in the capacity laying below the normal pool
level. Severe flood shall be absorbed by the capacity lying between normal
pool level and maximum pool level. Spillway starts discharging water, as soon
as the water level starts rising above the normal pool level. Because of heavy
outflow for irrigation purpose and hydropower generation during dry season,
the reservoirs are almost in completely depleted state. Thus just before the
monsoon season, almost full capacity is available in empty form, not only for
conservation of water but also to control the flood that may occur during
rains.

During monsoon, the irrigation demand is minimum and water will be

released only for hydropower generation. The reservoir level will thus
continue to rise steadily. The rise in water level is allowed to reach the normal
pool level by the end of monsoon season.
Gross Head and Net Head Estimation
Gross Head (Hg) : Gross head is the theoretical head available on the
project.
Hg = Headwater level – Turbine Center line Elevation incase of impulse
turbine (e. g; pelton turbine)
Hg = Headwater level – Tail water level incase of reaction turbine
turbine (e. g; francis, kaplan, propeller turbine)
Headwater Level: It is the elevation of water surface from which flow
begins in the hydropower project. It is the elevation of normal pool
level of reservoir in case of storage project and elevation of water level
at intake in case of RoR project.
Tail water Level: It is the elevation of water surface after flowing from
turbine in case of reaction turbine. To maintain tail water level, tail
water pond may be provided in some projects. If tail water pond is not
provided, river water level acts as tail water level.
Fig: head estimation in case of reaction turbine (kaplan, francis)
 Final Static Level

hf
Initial Steady Level
Surge Tank hg
Tunnel
hnet
`

Pe
n
sto
ck
Tail Water

Fig: Head estimation in case of impulse turbine (e. g; pelton turbine)

Methods of fixing Installed Capacity:
Installed capacity is the economically best capacity. It is the capacity that is
most viable from economic point of view.
a. Marginal Cost and Benefit Approach of Fixing Installed
Capacity:
In this approach, the installed capacity of plant is determined by equating the
marginal benefits and costs of the project. The fixed cost of project is
assumed to be constant.
Let, x % of time duration corresponds to best installed capacity of 1 KW
power generation with
Energy price = E/MW-Hr
Variable Cost = Vcost/KW (The variable cost is electromechanical installation
cost. The civil cost is not included in the variable cost because it is fixed cost)
O and M = Operation and Maintenance Cost
Life of plant = N years
Energy generated due to hydropower running at 1 KW for x % of time = MW * x% of a
Year
= *365*24* MW-Hr, Here x is in %.
Marginal benefit = Total energy generated*Energy Rate
= *365*24* *E
Marginal cost = Annual cost + O and M cost
Total marginal cost = Annual cost of installation of electromechanical equipment + O&M
Cost.
The electromechanical equipment are installed at the time of construction. So, their cost
is converted into annual cost. In order to get total cost, the operation and maintenance
cost is added over it. The civil component cost is fixed cost and it is not used in variable
cost.
AC = * Vcost
Where, i= interest rate, N =life of the project
Therefore, Marginal cost = AC + % O and M of V cost
Marginal Cost = * Vcost + % O and M of Vcost

% O and M is generally 1 to 2 %. For storage projects, it may b assumed even smaller.

Therefore, for best installed capacity,
Marginal Cost = Marginal Benefit
* Vcost + % O and M of Vcost = *365*24* *E
From this we get the value of x and then calculate the design discharge
corresponding to this x % probability of exceedance. Suppose if we get x =
40%, then the best installed capacity will be at Q40 .

Power

Power Duration Curve

1 KW

x%

% of time
b. Installed Capacity Optimization Approach
This is trial and error approach and is adopted mostly for fixing installed capacity
of hydropower projects. In this method, following procedure is adopted.
i. The flow duration curve is developed and discharge is found for different
probability of exceedance.
ii. Power is calculated for different flows with exceedance probability from Q25
to Q65. The power should be calculated in the intervals of 5 %. That means
Power should be calculated for Q25, Q30’ Q35, Q40, Q45, Q50, Q55, Q60 and Q65.
For example, power corresponding to 40 % exceedance probability = P 40 =
ɳү Q40*H
iii. The project cost should be calculated corresponding to each percentile flow
ranging from Q25 to Q65. For different percentile flow, project cost will be
different. For example a project designed at Q65 will have least capacity and
minimum cost of electromechanical equipment as well as civil structures as
the design discharge is lowest whereas a project designed at Q 25 will have
highest capacity and maximum cost of electromechanical equipment as
well as civil structures as the design discharge is highest.
iv. The benefit is also calculated for different powers from P25 to P65.
v. Financial analysis shall be performed for each percentile power and
financial indicators like B/C ratio, IRR, NPV, Payback Period should be
calculated.
vi. The capacity with highest values of B/C ratio, IRR, NPV and lowest
Payback Period should be selected as the installed capacity

B/C

Maximum B/C

Installed Capacity Capacity