BASICS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(21CV14/24)
 Module 2
BASICS OF BUILDING SCIENCE

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MODULE 2 : Basics of Building Science
Materials
Fine aggregate, Coarse aggregate, Cement, building blocks,
Concrete;
Components of a building
Foundation, Wall, Roof, Staircase, Door, Window, Beam,
Column, Slab, Chejja, Lintel
Types of structures
Adobe, Masonry building, Framed structures, Steel structures,
Tall buildings
Sustainability in Civil Engineering
Sustainable construction materials
SSC- Rain water harvesting; Energy Efficient buildings;

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Basic Building materials

 Building Material is any material that is used for

construction purpose
 Naturally occurring / Manmade Products
 Aggregates
 Cement
 Building blocks
 Mortar and Concrete
 Construction Industry are the second Largest consumer
of raw material
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Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand,
gravel, or crushed stone

Properties of concrete is substantially affected by various

characteristics of aggregates

Aggregates derived from natural resources are most widely

used aggregates in concrete, mortar and other applications

For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean,

hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings
of clay and other fine materials that could cause the
deterioration of concrete

Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total

volume of concrete, are divided into two distinct categories-
Fine and Coarse 03/14/2024
 Aggregates

Fine Aggregates Coarse Aggregates

150µm<Particle Size <4.75mm Particle Size > 4.75mm
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 Aggregates
Aggregates strongly influence concrete's freshly mixed
and hardened properties, mixture proportions, and
economy
Consequently, selection of aggregates is an important
process
Although some variation in aggregate properties is
expected, characteristics that are considered include
well graded, angular and durable aggregates

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Fine aggregates for Concrete

 Fine Aggregates : Size less than 4.75mm

 Natural sand
 Crushed sand: Crushed stone sand
Crushed gravel sand
Mixed sand
 Manufactured Fine aggregates- thermal
process, separation, washing, scrubbing

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 Source

Natural aggregate Artificial aggregate

 Sand  Broken brick
 Crushed rock  Sintered fly ash
such as Quartzite,
Basalt, Sandstone

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Table : Shapes of Particle

(Source: Concrete Technology, M S Shetty)

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Fig. Shape and Size of aggregates 03/14/2024
(Source: Concrete Technology, M S Shetty)
Grain Size Distribution

Determination of GSD:
 In coarse grain …... By sieve analysis
In fine grain …... By hydrometer
analysis

hydrometer

stack of

sieves

sieve shaker
Sieve Analysis Hydrometer Analysis 03/14/2024
Sieve Analyses

7 03/14/2024
Sieve Analysis

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Coarse aggregates for Concrete

 Coarse Aggregates : Size greater than

4.75mm
Natural gravel
Crushed gravel
Partially Crushed gravel
Manufactured coarse aggregates-
thermal process, separation, washing,
scrubbing
 All in all aggregates
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Limitations of Aggregates

 Aggregates shall be free from harmful organic

impurities, chemicals, Sea shells etc., which affects
the durability
 Aggregates used for RCC shall not contain any
material liable to attack the steel reinforcements

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Constituents in naturally occurring Aggregates

Naturally occurring concrete aggregates are a

mixture of rocks and minerals
Minerals
Silica (ex. Quartz)
Silicates (ex. Clay)
Carbonate (ex. Calcite, dolomite)
Igneous rocks
Granite
Basalt
Sedimentary rocks
Sandstone
Limestone
Shale
Metamorphic rocks
Marble
Slate 03/14/2024
 Ranges of particle
sizes found in
aggregates for
use in concrete

Particle sizes found in aggregates for use in concrete

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 Building Blocks- BRICKS

Physical requirement – Uniform colour, Flat, Sharp Edges, Free

from white patches and nodules
Mechanical Requirement – Compressive strength, Water
absorption, Tolerance, Efflorescence

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Building Blocks

Solid Blocks Hallow Blocks

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Building Blocks

Paver Blocks Terracotta Blocks

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Building Blocks

Lintel Blocks Lintel Blocks

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 Hydraulic Cement

Hydraulic Cement

Inorganic materials
Binder in presence of water
Forms hardened & water tight mass
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Hydraulic cement can be used in: Swimming Pools, Drainage systems, Foundations,
Elevator pits, Manholes, Sealing around concrete and masonry structures, Marine
applications, Chimneys, Cisterns and fountains

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 Mortar

 Composite of FA + Cement + water

 Used as binder
 Used to increase the strength and mobility of a
structure, as well as improve its resistance against
damaging environmental incidents like rain and wind

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 Application of Mortar  Brick-laying mortar is most
commonly used to bind bricks,
stones and concrete blocks
together for masonry projects.
 Bricklaying mortar can also be
used as a bed to support these
building materials from
bearing an uneven weight
distribution onto each other as
the structure is being built.
 Finishing mortar, which will
often utilize lime and/or
cement as the binding
material,
 Thin-set mortar can be used as
a glue-like structure for
projects that require ceramic
or stone installation.
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 Concrete

 Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and

coarse aggregate bonded together with a hydraulic
cement in presence of water that hardens over time

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  Concrete has relatively high
Properties of Concrete compressive strength, but much
lower tensile strength. Therefore, it
is usually reinforced with materials
that are strong in tension
 Concrete has a very low coefficient
of thermal expansion and shrinks as
it matures
 All concrete structures crack to
some extent, due to shrinkage and
tension
 Concrete that is subjected to long-
duration forces is prone to creep
 Concrete is one of the most durable
building materials
 It provides superior fire resistance
compared with wooden
construction and gains strength over
time
 Structures made of concrete can
have a long service life

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  Grades of concrete are defined
by the strength and
composition of the concrete
 The minimum strength the
concrete should have following
28 days of initial construction.

Compressi
Mix Ratio
Concrete ve
(cement :
Grade strength
FA: CA)
(N/mm2)
M10 [Link] 10
M15 [Link] 15
M20 1:1.5:3 20
M25 [Link] 25

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Impact of Building Materials on Environment
• How does manufacture of building materials affect mineral
extraction?
• What are the consequences of building materials production
on pollution and energy?
• How do Toxicity of chemicals used in manufacturing process
of building materials influence global warming potential and
ozone depletion potential?
• What are the issues related to wastes generated during the
production of building materials and construction processes?
• What are the issues related to Distribution / transport of
building materials?
• What are the Lifecycle & recycling options at the end of the
expected life of the building materials?

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Impact of Building Materials on Environment
Buildings are large entities which impacts upon
environment in various ways like,
 Ecological toxicity
 Ecological degradation
 Global climate change
 Stratospheric ozone depletion
 Acidification- Acid rain
 Eutrophication
 Deforestation, Desertification and soil erosion
 Loss of biodiversity
 Habitat Alteration
 Water resource depletion
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Ecological toxicity
There are many sources of environmental toxicity that can
lead to the presence of toxicants in our food, water and air.
These sources include organic and inorganic pollutants,
pesticides and biological agents, all of which can have
harmful effects on living organisms. E.g. Formaldehyde,
Mercury, Lead, asbestos, Hazardous / Toxic Air Pollutants,
Pesticide Chemicals etc.

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Ecological degradation
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the
environment through depletion of resources such as air,
water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat
destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. When
natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are
depleted, the environment is degraded.

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Global climate change
There are three major ways in which global warming will
make changes to regional climate: melting or forming ice,
changing the hydrological cycle (of evaporation and
precipitation) and changing currents in the oceans and air
flows in the atmosphere.

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Stratospheric ozone depletion
When chlorine and bromine atoms come
into contact with ozone in the
stratosphere, they destroy ozone
molecules. One chlorine atom can
destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules
before it is removed from the
stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed
more quickly than it is naturally created.
Ozone depletion occurs when
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and halon —
gases formerly found in aerosol spray
cans and refrigerants—are released into
the atmosphere. CFCs and halons
cause chemical reactions that break
down ozone molecules, reducing
ozone's ultraviolet radiation-absorbing 03/14/2024

capacity.
Acidification
Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and
transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and
NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form
sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and
other materials before falling to the ground. The major
sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are Burning of
fossil fuels to generate electricity - 2/3 of SO2 and ¼ of
NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power
generators, Vehicles and heavy equipment and
Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

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Eutrophication
It is the gradual increase in the concentration of
phosphorus, nitrogen, and other plant nutrients in an aging
aquatic ecosystem such as a lake. These materials enter
the ecosystem primarily by runoff from land that carries
debris and products of the reproduction and death of
terrestrial organisms. The productivity or fertility of such an
ecosystem naturally decreases with Eutrophication

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Deforestation and soil erosion
Deforestation refers to the decrease in forests areas across
the world that are lost for other uses such as agricultural
croplands, urbanization, or mining activities. Greatly
accelerated by human activities since 1960, deforestation
has been negatively affecting natural ecosystems,
biodiversity, and the climate. Direct causes of deforestation
are agricultural expansion, wood extraction and
infrastructure expansion such as road building and
urbanization. But roads also provide entry to previously
inaccessible—and often unclaimed—land.

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Loss of biodiversity
Biodiversity loss describes
the decline in the number,
genetic variability, and variety
of species, and the biological
communities in a given area.
This loss in the variety of life
can lead to a breakdown in
the functioning of the
ecosystem where decline has
happened. Deforestation
Climate change, habitat loss,
Overexploitation, Invasive
species, Pollution are the five
major culprits for the loss of
biodiversity.
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Habitat Alteration
Habitat alteration is defined as a change in the
particular environment or place where organisms
or species tend to live. Habitat alteration is a topic
that includes many other issues such as pollution,
invasive species, overfishing and aquaculture.

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Water resource depletion
Depletion of water means scarcity of water which means
that there is a lack of water. Water scarcity is the lack of
sufficient available freshwater resources to meet water
demand. It affects every continent. Major Causes for Water
Scarcity are Climate change, Natural calamities such as
droughts and floods, Increased human consumption,
Overuse and wastage of water, A global rise in freshwater
demand and Overuse of aquifers and its consequent slow
recharge. Some of the negative effects of groundwater
depletion are drying up of wells, reduction of water in
streams and lakes, deterioration of water quality, increased
pumping costs and land subsidence.

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A view of a city with skyscrapers

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Impact of Building Materials on Environment
The choice of materials and building elements for any
building should include,
 The implications of mineral extraction to
derive the basic product
 The pollution and energy consequences of the manuf-
acturing/production process
 Toxicity of product and chemicals etc. used in manufa-
cturing process e.g. global warming potential/ozone
depletion potential
 Waste issues at all stages of the production and const-
ruction processes
 Distribution/transport issues
 Lifecycle and recycling options at the end of
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Impact of Building Materials on Environment

Building and construction activities worldwide consume 3 billion tonnes

of raw materials each year, which is 40% of total global use.

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 Components of a building

Foundation, Wall, Roof, Staircase, Door,

Window, Beam, Column, Slab, Chejja, Lintel

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Components of a Two Floor Building

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Foundations
In engineering, a foundation is the element of a
structure which connects it to the ground, and
transfers loads from the structure to the ground
Foundations are generally considered either
shallow or deep
A part of the structure which is in direct contact
with the ground to which the loads are
transmitted
Sub-soil – Soil below the base of foundation
Footing – Lowermost part of foundation
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Functions of Foundation

 Reduction of load intensity

 Even distribution of load
 Provision of level surface
 Lateral stability
 Safety against undermining
 Protection against soil movements

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Requirements of a Good Foundation
Shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed
loads and transmit these to the sub-soil without causing
settlement

Base should be rigid, so that differential settlements are

minimized, when super-imposed loads are not evenly
distributed

Should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building

against damage

Should be so located that its performance may not be

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affected due to any unexpected future influence
Types of foundation

 Shallow foundations
1. Spread footing
2. Combined footing
3. Strap footing
4. Mat footing(Raft foundation)
 Deep foundation

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 Shallow Foundations
For transferring building loads to underlying ground
Mostly for firm soils or light loads

Firm
Ground

Bed Rock
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Shallow Foundations
Depth is not more than width of foundation
Transfers load very near to the surface
Top layer of the soil can adequately handle the
distribution of load
Constructed in open excavation in visible manner
Soil disturbance is minimum

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 Types of Shallow foundations

Spread footing
Combined footing
Strap footing
Mat foundation/ Raft foundation

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 Spread footing

 Spread footing are those which spread the super-

imposed load of wall over a larger area
 It supports either a wall or column

It may be of following kinds,

 Single footing
 Stepped footing
 Slopped footing
 Wall footing without step
 Stepped footing for wall

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Combined Footing

 Rectangular combined footing

 Trapezoidal combined footing and

 Combined Column- Wall footing

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Fig. Combined footings for Columns
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Fig. Combined Footing for Wall and Columns
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Fig. Strap Footing
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Mat / Raft Foundation

 A mat or raft is a combined footing that covers the entire

area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and
columns
 When allowable soil pressure is low, building are heavy,
then use of raft or mat is more economical
 This foundation eliminates differential settlements
 Three types of raft: solid slab system, beam slab system
and cellular system

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 Deep Foundation

Driven timber piles, Pacific Highway

P
I
L
E
For transferring building
loads to underlying Weak
ground soil
Mostly for weak soils or
heavy loads Bed rock
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Deep foundation

 Pile foundation
 Pier foundation or drilled caisson foundation
 Well foundation or caissons

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 Deep Foundations
Depth is more than width of foundation
Transfers building loads to the earth farther down from
the surface than a shallow foundation
Top layer of the soil cannot handle the distribution of
load
Installed in the interior of earth unaided by visible
inspection
Larger zone of soil is affected

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Pile foundation

 Foundation in which loads are taken at low level

by means of vertical members which may be
timber, concrete or steel

It may be adopted when,

 No firm bearing strata, instead of raft foundation
 When firm bearing strata does exist, but at a depth
 When pumping of sub-soil water becomes too
costly
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 Types of Pile Foundation

Four types of pile foundation

 End bearing pile
 Friction pile
 Combined end bearing and friction pile
 Compaction pile

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Fig. Pile Foundation
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 Pier Foundation

 Masonry or concrete
pier
 Drilled caissons

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Well Foundation

 These are box-like

structure circular or
rectangular which sunk
from the surface of either
land or water to the
desired depth
 They are hollow from
inside, filled with sand and
plugged at the bottom. The
load is transferred through
the perimeter wall called
steining
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Pile foundation

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Pier foundation

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Well foundation

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 Tarzhagi Bearing capacity of Soil

Ultimate bearing capacity of Soil: qultimate

 Maximum intensity of loading that the soil below
foundation experiences before failure
 The load at which soil starts displacing is called Ultimate
bearing capacity of the soil
Safe Bearing capacity of soil: qsafe
 Maximum intensity of loading that the soil can safely
support without any risk of failure
 The maximum load per unit area which the soil can bear
without any displacement or settlements

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Factor of safety: FOS
The required margin of safety permitted for a
structure or its component.

FoS = Ultimate Bearing Capacity / SBC

Factor of Safety depends upon the type of

construction and it usually ranges between 2
and 3

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 SBC of Soil

SBC = Ultimate Bearing Capacity / FoS

Type of soil SBC

(kN/m2)
Soft, Wet or Muddy Clay 50
Black cotton soil 150
Coarse sand/ Fine sand 440
Medium sand 245
Hard rock 3240
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Problems on SBC of soil
At a given site having an area of 18m x 12m, in Mysore
city. The SBC of the soil is 200kN/m2. A three storied
building is proposed and it is estimated that the total load
from the building is 20000kN. Proportion/Propose a
foundation dimension.
Given : SBC = 200kN/m2, F= 20000kN 12m
SBC = F/A i.e., A= F/SBC
Area of cross section, A = 20000/200 = 100m2 18m

Assuming a Square shaped footing,

Area of cross section is 10m x10m
But, based on the size of plot, the following
modification is made. 12.5mX8m 03/14/2024
 Problems on SBC of soil
If the self weight of a building is 30000kN to be built on a
hard rocky soil, what is the area of foundation required.

Given:
 SBC of hard rock soil = 3240kN/m2 (Standard Value)
 Load, P= 30000kN
SBC = P/A
i.e., A= P/SBC
Area of cross section A = 30000/3240 = 9.25m2

Assuming a square footing,

Area of cross section is 3.05m x 3.05m
Area provided = 9.3 m2. 03/14/2024
Problems on SBC of soil
If the Self weight of the structure is 2.5x104kN and the
area available for foundation is 9mx12m,
 What should be the minimum SBC that the soil
should carry?
 Can we construct this structure on a medium sand
soil?

Given: SBC of medium sandy soil = 245kN/m2

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 P= 2.5x104kN
 A= 9mx12m= 108m2
SBC = P/A
SBC= (2.5x104)/ 108
SBC = 231.48kN/m2

SBC of medium Sand soil = 245kN/m2

Since the SBC required < SBC available for Medium
Sand, the structure can be built on a medium sandy
soil

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Wall

 A wall is a structure and a surface that defines an area

which carries a load, provides security, shelter,
soundproofing and for decorative purposes
 Walls in buildings that form a fundamental part of the
superstructure or separate interior rooms, sometimes
for fire safety

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Wall

There are many kinds of walls, including:

 Glass walls (a wall in which the primary structure is made
of glass; does not include openings within walls that have
glass coverings: these are windows)
 Border barriers between countries
 Brick walls
 Defensive walls in fortifications
 Permanent, solid fences
 Retaining walls, which hold back dirt, stone, water, or noise
sound
 Stone walls
 Seawalls and levees

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 Glass walls Border barriers Brick walls

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Defensive walls in fortifications Fences Retaining walls

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 Stone walls Levees
Seawalls

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Roofs

A roof is the top covering of a building, including all

materials and constructions necessary to support
 The walls of the building or on uprights,
 Providing protection against rain, snow,
sunlight, extremes of temperature, and wind

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Types of Roofs

 Pitched Roof
 Flat roofs or terraced Roofs
 Curved Roofs

 Selection of Roofs
 Shape or Plan of building
 Climatic condition of an area
 Type of construction

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 Pitched Roof Flat roofs or Curved Roofs
terraced Roofs

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Functions of roof

 To shed water i.e., prevent water from standing on the

roof surface
 To protect the building interior from the effects of
weather elements such as rain, wind, sun, heat and
snow
 To provide thermal insulation
 To perform for the expected service life
 Provide a desired, unblemished appearance

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Staircase

 A stairway, staircase, stairwell, flight of stairs, or

simply stairs, is a construction designed to bridge
a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller
vertical distances, called steps.
 Stairs may be straight, round, or may consist of
two or more straight pieces connected at angles.

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 Technic
al Terms

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• The definitions of technical terms
used in connection with the stairs
are as follows:

1) Baluster :- It is vertical member of

wood or metal supporting the hand
rail.
2) Handrail :- The inclined rail over
the string is known as a handrail.
3) Newel post :- This is the vertical
member which is placed at the
ends of flights to connect hand rail.
4) Soffit :- It is the underside of a
stair.
5) Waist :- The thickness of structural
slab in case of an R.C.C. stair is
known as a waist. 03/14/2024
6) Nosing :-
It is the projecting part
of the tread beyond
the face of the riser. It
is rounded to give good
architectural effect.

7) Scotia :-
It is a moulding provided under the
nosing to improve the elevation of
the step.
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8) Step :- It is a portion of stair
which permits ascent and
descent. It is comprised of a
tread and riser.
9) Tread :- It is the upper
horizontal portion of a step
upon which the feet is placed
while ascending or descending.
10) Rise :- It is the vertical
distance between two
successive tread faces.
11) Going :- It is the horizontal
distance between two
successive riser faces.
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12) Flight :- A series of steps
without any platform, break or
landing in their direction.

13) Landing :- It is the level

platform at the top or bottom
of a flight between the floors.

14) Run :- It is the total length of

stairs in a horizontal plane,
including landings.

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15)Headroom :- It is the minimum clear vertical
distance between the tread and ceiling.

16)Pitch or Slope :- It is the angle which the

line of nosing of the stair makes with the
horizontal.

17)Riser :- It is the vertical portion of a step

providing a support to the tread.

18)Line of nosing :- It is an imaginary line

touching of each tread and is parallel to the
slope of the stair.
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19) Winders :- These are tapering steps which are
provided for changing the direction of a stair.

20) Strings or stringers :- These are the sloping wooden

members which support the steps in a stair. They run
along the slope of the stair.
There are two types of string :
i) a cut or open string
ii) a closed or housed string
In the cut or open string , the upper edge is cut
away to receive the ends of steps.
In the closed or housed string, the ends of steps
are housed between straight parallel edges of the
string.
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Requirements of Good Staircase
 A stair should be well ventilated
 Every flight should be separated from the other by
spacious and well ventilated landings.
 Each flight should have not more than 15 steps
 As far as possible winders should be avoided
 The width of the landing should not be less than the
width of the stairs
 The width of the stairs in residential buildings should
no be less than 75 cm and for public buildings it
should not be less than 125cm

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 The pitch of the stairs should not be more than 25° for
making the ascent and descent easy
 There should be an adequate head room, having a
mini­mum height of 2.2 metres
 The hand railing should be of a suitable size and shape
that it can easily be gripped in hand. The height of the
hand railing should not be less than 75 cm

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Types of staircase

 Straight flight stairs

 Dog legged stairs
 Open newel stairs
 Quarter turn stairs
 Bifurcated stairs
 Spiral stairs

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 STRAIGHT
STAIRS
• All steps lead in one direction.
• Simplest form of stair arrangement.
• It may consist of one or more flights.
• They are used when space Elevation
available for staircase is long
but narrow in width.

Pla 03/14/2024
•The width and the length of the landings should
be equal.

Straight-stairs-with-intermediate-landing 03/14/2024
 Turning
Stairs
1. Quarter Turn Stairs
2. Half-Turn Stairs
3. Three Quarter Turn Stairs

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In case of turning stairs ,flights take turn. The types of
turning stairs are:
1. Quarter turn stairs:
• A stair turning through one right angle is known as
Quarter turn stairs. (L-shaped stair)

•If a quarter turn stair is branched into two flights at a landing is

known as a Bifurcated stair.
•This types of stair is commonly used in the public buildings
near the entrance hall .
•The stair has a wider flight at bottom which bifurcates into two
narrower flights at the landing. 03/14/2024
-one turn into left and the other to the right.
• This staircase has either equal or unequal
flights.

03/14/2024
2. Half Turn Stairs:
• A stair turning through right angle is known as Half Turn
Stairs.
• A half turn star may be of dog-legged type or open newel
type .

Dog-legged stair Open newel stair

DOG-LEGGED STAIR
•Two short flights with a half space landing between them.
•In case of dog-legged stair, the flights run in opposite03/14/2024
directions
and there is no space between them in plan.
•Its name is derived from its appearance in the sectional
elevation.
•This stairs are useful where total width of space available for
the staircase is equal to twice the width of steps.

OPEN NEWEL STAIR

•Space between the upper and lower flights causes half
space landing to be longer.
•In case of open newel stair, there is a well or hole or
opening between flights in plan.
•This well may be rectangular or of any geometrical shape and
it can be used for fixing lift.
•These staircase are useful where available space for staircase has
a width greater than twice the width of steps.

03/14/2024
3. Three quarter turn Stair
•A stair turning through three right angles is known as a
three quarter stair.
•In this case ,an open well is formed. This types of stair is used
when the length of the staircase is limited and when the
vertical distance between the two floor is quite large.

03/14/2024
Circular or helical or spiral
stairs

03/14/2024
• the steps radiate from the center and they do
not have either any landing or any
intermediate newel post…..
• Some of the important facts to be noted
in connection with the circular stairs are:
1. flights consist of winders only and may
be continued through any number of
turns.
2. may be constructed of a cast iron or mild
steel or concrete. Usually its structural
design and construction of are complicated
in nature. 03/14/2024
03/14/2024
3. For concrete spiral stairs, the steel
reinforcement is heavy and formwork is
complicated. These make the concrete spiral
stairs expensive.
4. The core of spiral stair may be solid or
hollow and the stair may be provided with
cut or closed strings.
5. The spiral stairs are useful where the
space available is limited and where the
traffic is less. Eg., shops

03/14/2024
Geometrical Stairs

03/14/2024
“continuous stairs that turn or wind
about a central well hole which has
rounded corners or is circular or
elliptical and that have the strings
and rails arranged upon geometric
principles and running continuously
from top to bottom.”

03/14/2024
• have any geometrical shape and requires
no newel posts.
• The handrail continues without
interruption and without any angular
turns.
• Its construction requires considerable skill
and it is weaker than corresponding open
newel stair.

03/14/2024
Straight flight stairs Dog legged stairs Open newel stairs

03/14/2024
Quarter turn stairs Bifurcated stairs Spiral stairs

03/14/2024
Problems on Dog legged Staircases
1. Design a doglegged stair for a building in which the vertical
distance between the floor is 3.6m. The stair hall measures
2.5m x 5.5m. Draw the plan.
Solution: Height of floor= 3.6m= 3600mm
Stair hall dimension= 2.5m X 5.5m= 2500mm X 5500mm
Let the height of rise/riser be 15cm =150mm
And tread = 25cm = 250mm
Width of stair =2500/2 = 1250mm
Width of landing =width of stairs=1250mm
Number of risers= Total height of floor / Height of riser
= 3600/150=24 nos
Assuming no. of risers in a flight= 15 , Provide 2 flights, one
with 15 riser and another with 9 riser in each flight

03/14/2024
For the 1st flight, No. of riser =15
No. of treads in flight = no. of riser – 1= 15-1=14
For the 2nd flight, No. of riser =09
No. of treads in flight =09-1=08
Space occupied by treads=14 x 250=3500mm
Let width of landing = width of stair = 1250mm

Space left for passage =5500-1250-3500 = 750mm

Head room = 150 X 15 = 2250mm > 2.2 m OK
1.250m

Prepare the layout

2.5m

5.5m
3.5m03/14/2024
Problems on Dog legged Staircases
2. The inside dimensions of a staircase in a residential building are 2.00m
x 4.60m. The height of floor is 3.30m and the roof consists of RCC slab of
120mm thickness. Prepare a layout of an RCC stair for this building.
Solution:
Assuming a convenient height of riser=180mm
Let tread = 230mm
Assuming the stair is of doglegged
Width of stair = 2000/2= 1000mm
Then,
Number of risers= Total height of floor/Height of riser
= (3.3+0.12)/0.18 = 19
In order to provide suitable head room below landing level, provide 12
risers in the first flight and 7 risers in next flight
Number of treads in first flight = No. of risers -1 =(12-1)=11
Length occupied by treads in 1st flight = 11X230= 2530mm
Head room = 180 X 12 = 2160mm = 2.2 m OK
Length occupied by treads in 2nd flight= 6X230= 1380mm
Space left= 4600- 1000-(11x230)=1070mm 03/14/2024
Door
 A door is a hinged or otherwise movable barrier that
allows ingress into and egress from an enclosure
 The created opening in the wall is a doorway or portal
 Provides security by controlling access to the doorway
 A panel that fits into the portal of a building, room, or
vehicle
 Doors are commonly attached by hinges, but can
move by other means, such as slides or
counterbalancing

03/14/2024
Key purpose

 Doors are generally used to separate interior spaces

(closets, rooms, etc.) for convenience, privacy, safety, and
security reasons
 Doors are also used to secure passages into a building
from the exterior, for reasons of climate control and safety
 A Blast-proof door is constructed to allow access to a
structure as well as to provide protection from the force of
explosions
 A trapdoor is a door that is oriented horizontally in a
ceiling or floor, often accessed via a ladder

03/14/2024
Types of doors

 Hinged Doors
 Swing doors
 Revolving door
 Sliding door
 Foldable door
 Collapsible door
 Rolling shutters
 Battened or ledge shaped doors
 Framed or paneled doors
 Glazed Door
 Wire gauge Door
 Louvered Door
03/14/2024
 Hinged Doors Swing doors Revolving door

03/14/2024
 Sliding door Foldable door Collapsible door

03/14/2024
 Rolling shutters Battened or ledge
shaped doors

03/14/2024
 Glazed Door Wire gauge Door Louvered Door

03/14/2024
Window

 A window may be defined as an opening made in a

wall for the purpose of providing day light, vision
and ventilation.
 Construction of window is identical to that of door.
 It is comprised of two parts. 1) Frame 2) shutter.
 They are normally provided with two leaves

03/14/2024
Window

The selection of size, shape, location and the

number of windows to be provided in a room
depends upon the following considerations,
 Size of the room
 Location of the room and its utility
 Direction of wind
 Climatic considerations of the site such as
humidity, temperature, variation etc.

03/14/2024
Types of Window
Depending upon types of materials used, nature of
operational movements of the shutter, location and
the manner in which they are fixed, windows can be
broadly classified as,
 Fixed windows
 Bay windows
 Dormer windows
 Pivoted windows
 Glazed windows
 Sliding windows
 Corner windows
 Casement windows
 Double hung window 03/14/2024
 Bay windows Dormer windows
Fixed windows

03/14/2024
 Glazed windows

Sliding windows
Pivoted windows

Triple Glazed

03/14/2024
 Corner windows Casement windows Double hung window

03/14/2024
Beam
 A beam is a structural element that primarily
resists loads applied laterally to the beam's
axis
 Its mode of deflection is primarily by
bending
 Beams are characterized by their
 Manner of support
 Shape of cross-section
 Equilibrium conditions
 Construction methods
 Geometry and 03/14/2024


Types of Beam based on Geometry

Straight Beam
Curved Beam
Tapered beam

03/14/2024
Types of Beam based on the materials
used
Timber beam
Steel beam
Reinforced concrete beam
Composite beam

03/14/2024
Composite beam
Types of Beam based on Construction
Methods
Cast In-situ
Precast Concrete Beam
Pre-stressed Concrete Beam
Lintel Beam

03/14/2024
Column

 Column is a compression member

 Transfers weight of the structure above to
the structural elements
 Columns may be designed to resist lateral
forces of wind and earthquake
 Columns are frequently used to support
beams or arches on which the upper parts
of walls or ceilings rest

03/14/2024
Types of Column

Columns are classified based on the several

conditions which include:
Based on Types of Reinforcement
Based on Types of Loading
Based on Slenderness Ratio
Based on Shape
Based on Construction Material

03/14/2024
Types of Column based on shape

 Square or Rectangular Column

 Circular column
 L-Shape Column
 T-Shape Column

03/14/2024
Types of Column based on Construction Material

a. Reinforced Concrete
Column
b. Steel Column
c. Timber Column
d. Brick Column
e. Block Column and
f. Stone Column.

03/14/2024
Slab
 A slab is a structural element, made of
concrete, that is used to create flat
horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof decks
and ceilings
 A slab is generally supported by beams,
columns, walls, or the ground

03/14/2024
Types of Slab

Flat slab
Conventional slab
Hollow core ribbed slab
Waffle slab
Solid slab raft
Composite slab

03/14/2024
A flat slab is a two-
way reinforced
concrete slab that
usually does not
have beams and
girders, and the
loads are
transferred directly
to the supporting
03/14/2024

concrete columns
Conventional Slab

• The slab which is supported on Beams and columns

is called a conventional slab.
• In this kind, the thickness of the slab is small
whereas the depth of the beam is large and load is
transferred to beams and then to columns 03/14/2024
Hallow core ribbed Slab

• A hollow core slab, also known as a voided slab,

hollow core plank or simply a concrete plank is a
precast slab of prestressed concrete typically used
in the construction of floors in multi-story apartment
buildings. 03/14/2024
Waffle Slab

• A waffle slab or two-way joist slab is a concrete slab

made of reinforced concrete with concrete ribs
running in two directions on its underside.
• The name waffle comes from the grid pattern
created by the reinforcing ribs 03/14/2024
 Solid Slab Raft

• A raft foundation is a continuous slab of concrete

usually
• Covering an area equal to or greater than the base
of a building or structure
• Provides support for walls or lightly loaded columns
and serve as a base for the ground floor 03/14/2024
Composite Slab

• A composite slab is a slab made with profiled steel

sheeting as permanent shuttering, capable of
sustaining the weight of the wet concrete, the
reinforcement steel and the construction imposed
loads in the construction phase 03/14/2024
Lintel
• A lintel is a horizontal
member which is placed
across an opening to
support the position of the
structure above it.
• A lintel is thus a sort of
beam in which width will
be equal to the width of the
wall, and the ends of which
are built into the wall.
• Width will be equal to the
width of the wall
03/14/2024
03/14/2024
Classification of LINTEL

Based on the materials of construction

[Link] lintels
[Link] lintels
[Link] lintels
[Link] lintels
[Link] concrete lintels

03/14/2024
Timber/ Wooden Lintel Stone Lintel Brick Lintel

03/14/2024
Reinforced Brick Lintel Reinforced Concrete Steel Lintel
Lintel

03/14/2024
 Function of LINTEL

[Link] supports the walls above the openings like doors,

windows, etc.
[Link] provide a safeguard of the windows and doors.
[Link] withstands the imposed loads coming from above bricks
or block including the roofing members.
[Link] lintel is used to transfer all imposed loads to the side
walls.
[Link] lintels are used as a decorative architectural
element.
03/14/2024
Chejja

 Chajja is a sloping or horizontal structural overhang

projecting from the bottom of a beam or a lintel,
usually provided over openings on external walls
 To provide protection from sun and rain and for
architectural purpose.
 Geographic location and building orientation will
determine which type to use when designing a
sunshading system.

03/14/2024
03/14/2024
Types of Structure

Types of Structure

Adobe Structure Framed Structure Steel Structure

03/14/2024
Types of Structure

Types of Structure

Tall Building Industrial Building Dams

03/14/2024
Types of Structure

Types of Structure

Bridges Tunnels Roads

03/14/2024
Types of Structure

Types of Structure

Adobe Structure Framed Structure Steel Structure

03/14/2024
Types of Structure

Types of Structure

Tall Building Industrial Building Dams

03/14/2024
Types of Structure

Types of Structure

Bridges Tunnels Roads

03/14/2024
 Adobe structure

• Adobe is a material used for building that is made of organic

materials such as earth, clay, straw, and so on
• Adobe bricks are traditionally made in open cast moulds and left to
sun-dry rather than being kiln-fired.

03/14/2024
 Advantages
• Mud and other materials are easily available
• Cost of manufacturing is very less
• Cooler in summer and hotter in winter
• Cost savings in energy production

Adobe Structure

03/14/2024
 Disadvantages
• Damage caused by external forces such as wind,
water and earthquakes
• Problems caused by excess humidity or rain
water
• Requires Regular maintenance
• Cracking of walls in summer

Adobe Structure

03/14/2024
 • Masonry Structures
• Masonry is the building of structures from individual units,
which are often laid in and bound together by mortar; the
term masonry can also refer to the units
03/14/2024
 • Masonry Structures
• Masonry is the building of structures from individual units,
which are often laid in and bound together by mortar; the
term masonry can also refer to the units
• common materials of masonry construction are brick,
building stone such as marble, granite, and limestone, cast
stone, concrete block, glass block, and adobe
• However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and
workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are
assembled can substantially affect the durability of the
overall masonry construction.
• A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or
bricklayer.

03/14/2024
Advantages
 The use of material such as bricks and stones can increase
the thermal mass of a building.
 Masonry is a non-combustible product and can protect the
building from fire.
 Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as
debris from hurricanes or tornadoes.

03/14/2024
Disadvantages

 Extreme weather, under certain circumstances, can

cause degradation of masonry due to expansion and
contraction forces associated with freeze-thaw cycles
 Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a
strong foundation, such as reinforced concrete, to
avoid settling and cracking
 Other than concrete, masonry construction does not
lend itself well to mechanization, and requires more
skilled labor than stick-framing
 Masonry consists of loose components and has a low
tolerance to oscillation as compared to other materials
such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood, or metals
03/14/2024
 Structural Limitations of Masonry

 Masonry has high compressive strength under

vertical loads but has a low tensile strength (against
twisting or stretching) unless reinforced.
 The tensile strength of masonry walls can be
increased by thickening the wall, or by building
masonry piers (vertical columns or ribs) at intervals
and also steel reinforcements such as wind
posts can be added

03/14/2024
 Some of the well-known
monuments built using masonry

(b)

(a)

(c)

(a) The Colosseum in Rome, Italy (b) The Great Wall of China
(c) Taj Mahal in Agra, India
03/14/2024
Framed structures

03/14/2024
(a) Timber Frame Structure (b) Typical RC Frame Structure

03/14/2024
 A framed structure in any material is one that is made
stable by a skeleton that is able to stand by itself as a rigid
structure without depending on floors or walls to resist
deformation.
 Their principal structural elements consist of beams and
columns connected through rigid nodes, forming resistant
frames in two main directions, which enables the transfer of
bending moments and axial loads to columns.
 Materials such as wood, steel, and reinforced concrete,
which are strong in both tension and compression, make
the best members for framing.

03/14/2024
Advantages
• Greater freedom in the distribution of the inner spaces
of the building i.e., optimum use of floor space
• Easy and rapid construction
• Economical for high-rise buildings.
• Can be erected by steel and/or reinforced concrete.
• They are very flexible structures that attract small
seismic action.
• By the use of brick walls in the frame system, the heat
transmited to the inside of the building is less than the
other structures.

03/14/2024
 Disadvantages
• This type of structures is heavy and therefore more
expensive.
• Its flexibility allows large displacements which causes
damage to nonstructural elements.
• Use of this structural system is limited to low and
medium structures, because as the building has
more floors, have to be greater the size of the
columns
• In frames structures, span lengths are typically
restricted to 40ft when normal reinforced concrete.
Or else spans larger than that can source lateral
deflections.

03/14/2024
 Steel Structures

• Steel structure is a metal structure

which is made of structural steel
components connect with each
other to carry loads and provide full
rigidity
• These steel materials are of certain
standards of chemical composition
and proper strength.
• The steel materials are also defined
as hot rolled products, having cross
sections like angles, channels and
beam.
• All across the world, there is an
increasing demand for steel
structures.

03/14/2024 Eiffel Tower – 986ft(1889)

 Steel Structures

Advantages of steel
structures

• Light Weight
• Ductility
• Elastic Behavior
• High strength
• Pre fabricated
• Fast construction
• Can be Reused

03/14/2024 Brooklyn Bridge (1883)

 Steel Structures

Howrah Bridge, Calcutta

Disadvantages of steel structures

• Steel structures are more costly than other types of structures
• The strength of steel is reduced considerably when heated at temperatures
commonly observed in fire; therefore the treatment of fireproof is needed
• The steel structures when exposed to air and water as in the case of bridges,
there is a big possibility of corrosion and it needs regular maintenance

03/14/2024
 Tall Buildings

03/14/2024
 Tall Buildings

• A tall building cannot be defined in specific terms related to height or number of floors.
• From the structural design point of view, it is simpler to consider a building as tall when its
structural analyses and design are in some way affected by the lateral loads, particularly the
sway caused by such loads.
• As the height increases, the forces of nature particularly due to wind, begin to dominate.
• structural framework for super-tall buildings is developed around concepts associated entirely
with resistance to turbulent wind.

03/14/2024
 Tall Buildings

Advantages
• They save space and accommodate more
residents as compared to shorter
buildings.
• The higher floors are relatively more airy
and receive more sunlight.
• Presents a pleasant panoramic view of
the city.
• Floors above the ground provide freedom
from street noises.
• Taller buildings are a better option for the
idea of a green building since they
provide more surface area to install solar
panels.
• They are much more economical as
buying a small land and constructing a tall
building is more affordable than
purchasing a widespread land.
03/14/2024 Burj Khalifa – 828m (2010)
 Tall Buildings

Disadvantages
• The construction of very tall
buildings requires highly skilled
engineers and architects to design
the building, thus increasing the
total cost.
• Very tall buildings bear wind forces
and seismic forces apart from dead
and live loads.
• Buildings above 100 story height
face the problem of oscillation,
sometimes resulting in crashing of
windows.
• The foundations of very tall
buildings with smaller construction
land are under tremendous load
and failing of soil may lead to
collapse of the building.
• Difficult to prevent accidents due to
03/14/2024 fire, earthquake disasters, etc.