Unit 2.
Underlying
Principles and
Strategies in Teaching
Mathematics
1. Constructivism in
Mathematics teaching
Topics 2. Teaching for understanding in
Mathematics teaching
3. Dale’s Cone of experience
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Constructivism in
Mathematics
teaching
Subtitle
CONSTRUCTIVISM
• At the heart of constructivism is the
notion that learners are not blank slates
but rather creators (constructors) of their
own learning.
• All people, all of the time, construct or
give meaning to things they perceive or
think about.
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CONSTRUCTIVISM
• Whether you are listening passively to
a lecture or actively engaging in
synthesizing findings in a project, your
brain is applying prior knowledge
(existing schemas) to make sense of
the new information.
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CONSTRUCTIVISM
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CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivist philosophies focus on what
students can do to integrate new
knowledge with existing knowledge to
create a deeper understanding of the
mathematics.
Each philosophy identifies the student as an
active participant in the teaching and
learning process.
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Constructivist teachers pose questions and problems, then guide students to
help them find their own answers. They use many techniques in the teaching
process.
For example, they may:
• prompt students to formulate their own questions (inquiry)
• allow multiple interpretations and expressions of learning (multiple
intelligences)
• encourage group work and the use of peers as resources (collaborative
learning)
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The main activity in a constructivist classroom is
solving problems.
Students use inquiry methods to ask questions,
investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to
find solutions and answers.
As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions,
and, as exploration continues, they revisit those
conclusions.
Exploration of questions leads to more questions .
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How does this theory differ from
traditional ideas about teaching and
learning?
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What are the benefits of
constructivism?
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Children learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are
actively involved, rather than passive listeners.
Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and
understanding, rather than on rote memorization.
Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think and
understand.
Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist
classrooms, students create organizing principles that they can
take with them to other learning settings.
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Constructivism gives students
ownership of what they learn, since
learning is based on students' questions
and explorations, and often the students
have a hand in designing the assessments
as well.
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By grounding learning activities in an
authentic, real-world context, constructivism
stimulates and engages students. Students in
constructivist classrooms learn to question
things and to apply their natural curiosity to
the world.
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Constructivism promotes social and
communication skills by creating a classroom
environment that emphasizes collaboration and
exchange of ideas. Students must learn how to
articulate their ideas clearly as well as to
collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group
projects.
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EDGAR
DALE’S CONE
OF
EXPERIENCE
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Who Is Edgar Dale?
He is the father of the Cone of Experience.
According to Wagner (1970), Dale used
his position to fight relentlessly for a
better school system, academic freedom
and civil rights.
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The Cone of
Experience
• The Cone placed different educational media
and methods in a continuum from the most
concrete experiences at the bottom to the most
abstract at the top.
• When a learner moves from direct and
purposeful experiences to verbal symbols, the
degree of abstraction gradually grows. And as a
result, learners become spectators rather than
participants.
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1. Direct Purposeful Experiences
The bottom level of Dale’s Cone of Experience is
also the least abstract.
Direct purposeful experiences are hands-on
activities that grant us responsibility for driving a
specific outcome.
These rich, full-bodied experiences can be
considered the bedrock of all education. After all,
learners can see, handle, taste, feel, touch and
smell these experiences.
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2. Contrived Experiences
The second level is called contrived experiences, which
focuses on the ‘editing’ of reality. At this level, teachers
use representative models and mock-ups to provide an
experience that is as close to reality as possible.
This can make the concept easier to grasp. After
all, some realities are far too complex to take in
all at once. As such, contrived experiences are
imitations that sometimes teach better than
the realities they imitate.
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3. Dramatised Experiences
Dramatised experiences can be seen as
role-play exercises. This means
reconstructing situations for learning
purposes. As a result, the third level involves
shifting learners — at least some of them —
from observers to active participants.
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4. Demonstrations
A demonstration is a visualized explanation of
facts, ideas or processes.
On top of that, demonstrations can include pictures,
drawings, film and other types of media in order to
facilitate clear and effective learning. This approach
helps to showcase how individuals can complete these
tasks in real life.
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5. Study Trips
Study trips offer the sights and sounds of real-
world settings. The main activity focuses on
observing from the sidelines, aside from occasional
opportunities to participate.
These rich experiences help learners to learn more
about different objects, systems and situations. As
such, study trips provide an opportunity to
experience something that learners cannot be
encounter within the traditional classroom
space.
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6. Exhibits
The sixth level of Dale’s Cone of Experience moves us
away from the most abstract experiences. This is the
first level that opens the door for an expanded range
of sensory and participatory experiences.
In fact, this level can be summarized as meaningful
displays with limited handling.
After all, most exhibits are experiences that are for
the eyes only. Yet, some exhibits include sensory
elements that can be related to direct purposeful
experiences. These exhibits are specifically designed
for interactivity.
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8. Motion Pictures and 7. Educational Television
Most recent publications combine levels eight and seven into one
category. After all, motion pictures and television are similar
mediums. They enable learners to process real-life processes or
events through on-screen recordings.
Motion pictures and educational television include, for
example, videos, animations and tv programs, which imply
value and messages through moving pictures. These are
abstract experiences, as learners focus on observation
instead of active participation.
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9. Recordings, Radio and Still Pictures
• Edgar Dale first created this model in 1946. As such, he
included the multimedia assets of his time, such as
recordings, radio and still pictures. In more modern terms,
this level could include photos, podcasts or audio files.
• Yet, Dale placed visual and auditory media on a similar
level of abstraction. After all, in both cases, you are merely
observing visual symbols (like still photos) or verbal
symbols (like audio recordings). Neither example actively
asks anything of the learner.
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10. Visual Symbols
• The other highly abstract level includes visual
symbols, such as charts, maps, graphs and
diagrams that are used for conceptual
representation.
• These visual symbols help to make just about
any reality into something easier to
understand.
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11. Verbal Symbols
As explored, each level of the Cone moves the
learner a step further away from real-life
experiences. As such, experiences focusing
only on the use of verbal symbols are the
furthest removed from real life.
Verbal symbols are highly abstract as they bear
no physical resemblance to the objects or
ideas they stand for. In fact, these verbal
symbols provide no visual representation or
clues to their meaning.
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