Functions of Management

Functions of management
• Planning
• Organizing
• Directing/Leading
• Controlling
• It can also be called as PIE (Planning, Implementing
and Evaluation).
• Decision making and communication are key
processes in management.
 Planning

Why we plan?
• Because the supply of material, financial and
human resources are limited.
- A carefully developed plan is the best way to
guarantee that these limited resources are
allocated, properly used, and accounted for during
the prescribed time frame.
• We plan because planning is the cornerstone of
managing and leading teams to achieve results.
• One of the major reasons, managers’ need to plan is
in order to cope with an uncertain environment.
Three types of uncertainty
1. State uncertainty ("What will happen?")
2. Effect uncertainty ("What will happen to our
organization?")
3. Response uncertainty ("What will be the outcome
of our decisions?").
 PLAN

• It is a specific action proposed to help the

organization achieve its objectives.
• It is a statement of recommendable actions.
• To Plan is to propose a forward program for
guiding the future affairs of an organization.
• It functions like a blueprint: it defines the steps and
decision points required to achieve a desired
result or a large goal.
 Health care Planning
• Is orderly process of
– Defining community health problems,
– Identifying unmet needs of the community
– Surveying available resources and
– Setting out the administrative action needed
to reach those designed goals.

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 Purpose of planning
• Gives direction to the organization.
• Improves efficiency
• Eliminates duplication of efforts.
• Concentrates resources on important services.
• Reduces guess work.
• Improves communication and coordination of
activities

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 THE RATIONALE FOR PLANNING

• Planning helps :
 Copping with future uncertainty & changes
 Focus attention on objectives
 For economical operation
 Provides performance standards & facilitate control
 Helps foreseeing & identifying potential risks
 Cont…

• Planning answers questions:

-Where are we now(asses the present situation)
-Where are we going (objectives)
-With what (Resources)
-How (efficient And appropriate implementation
strategies & activities)
-When (period of time)
 FEATURES OF PLANNING

• Is an intellectual activity
• Is a continuous Process (cyclic /spiral)
• Is flexible as it is based on future conditions, which
are always dynamic
• Must be systematic & action oriented
• is collective undertaking requiring the participation
of
 Professionals ( health & other sectors)
 Community/ NGOs
 Government bodies

• is needed & practiced at all managerial levels

regardless of the size (small or complex) & type
(non–profit or profit making ) of organization
 Characteristics of Good Plan

 OBJECTIVITY :
• Planning should be based on objective thinking.
• It should be factual/ realistic and logical.
• It focuses on the organizational goals.
 FUTURITY
• Must foresee/predict about the nature of future
events affecting the firm with reasonable accuracy .

 FLEXIBILITY
• It must be able to adjusted smoothly and quickly to
changing conditions without seriously loosing their
effectiveness.
 Cont…

 COMPREHENSIVNESS
• Plan must be comprehensive enough to provide
adequate guidance.
 CLARITY
• It has to be clear for every member /stakeholder .
 DYNAMIC: It is not a dogma.
 CONTINOUS
 A good plan should have:
• Clear vision, mission, goal and
objectives
• A clear picture of the tasks to be
carried out (action plan)

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 STEPS IN PLANNING

• There are 6 steps in planning

1. Situational analysis
2. Selecting priority problems
3. Setting objectives
4. Identifying potential obstacles & limitations
5. Designing strategies
6. Writing the plan
 STEP 1 -SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

This step is used to :

• Gather information from the community
• Identify useful information from records
• Collect information on resources
• Review existing health work
• Tabulate cumulative data
• Analyze and interpret information
SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
• INVOLVES
1. Population characteristics
- Target population identification
- Determine population size by category
- Estimate overall population growth rate
- Determine religious, educational & cultural
characteristics
 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS CONT…

2. Review area characteristics

• Geographical and topographical situation
• Infrastructure
- Transport modes & routes
- Communication facilities
- Water supply & sanitary facilities
• Socio economic situations
• Public & private sector situation
 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS CONT…

3. Policy & political environment

• Consider national health policy & programmes and
relate to actual situation in the area
• Political stability
• Social security
 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS CONT…

4. Analyzing health needs

• Prerequisite for planning, but complex to measure
needs
• Can be assessed through
- Medical indicators,
- Community perceptions of needs,
 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS CONT…

5. Analyzing health services

• Organizational structure & function of health
services
• Service provision of facilities
• Service utilization
• Service gaps
• Limitations
 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS CONT…

6. Analyze resources
 Financial resources
 Personnel
 Material & equipment
 Space & building
 Time
 Information
 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS CONT…

7. Review past implementation experience

• Find out information or experiences from activities
implemented in the past.
 Success
 Failure /short comings
 STEP 2 -SELECTING CRITICAL PRIORITY PROBLEMS

• The 2nd stage sets priorities for the organization, in

the light of competing needs & limited resources
This step is used to :
• Identify and list problems in the community,
• Select important /prioritized problems according to
criteria,
• Recognize problems which are the responsibility of
other agencies outside the health service
 PRIORITY SETTING CONT…

• A problem is a perceived gap between what exists

and what should exist.
• It is useful to group problems under common
headings E.g. - Environmental problems
- Disease problems
- Socio-economic problems
- Health service problems
 CRITERIA

• One way to determine problem priorities is to set

criteria.
• A criterion is a principle or a standard by which one
can measure or judge something.
• A set of criteria may be listed to form a check-list.
 Criteria for problem prioritization

• Magnitude of the problem: the public health

burden imposed by the problem
• Degree of severity: consequent suffering, death and
disability
• Feasibility: in terms of cost effectiveness, social
acceptability and local sustainability
• Gov’t concern: political acceptability with
consideration of equity, multi-sectoral approach,
-consistency with gov’t plan and budgetary system
 Cont.…

• Community concern: how much does it relate to

community perceived health needs?
• Ranking is then done by using criteria on 5 point
scale
- very high (5), high (4), moderate (3), low (2)
• and very low (1)
 CONT…

• At the completion of this step there should be a list

of the important problems of the community
– Clearly defined – with possible causes, or
– Analyzed in order of importance.
 STEP 3- SETTING OBJECTIVES

• Goals, aims & objectives are all ways of describing

the desired direction of service.
• They differ in terms of breadth & details
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Goal – Is a broad statement and generally there is one

goal for a health system/ HSO.
• Formulated at a higher level
e.g. HFA by the year 2015
Aims – There are a number aims related to a goal.
• Is specific to a particular health problem
E.g. decrease IMR in a community
 CONT…

Objectives – for each program aim there may be a

number of objectives which are specified in
measurable terms
• Is a planned or intended end result of a program or
an activity
E.g. decrease IMR in a community by 10% by the year
2010
 Cont…

• Objectives of a program must be ‘SMART’

 Specific- an observable action, behavior or
achievement which is described and also linked to a
rate, number, percentage or frequency.
 Measurable - A system, method or procedure has
to exist which allows monitoring & evaluation
 Achievable – capable of being reached but that
does not mean easy or simple.
 Relevant – its real importance to the organization &
the society.
• Its agreement with the general health policy or
relates to the problem to be solved or reduced.
 Time bound (time specific) - has specified period of
time
E.g. By the year 2015, 80% of eligible pregnant
mothers will receive antiretroviral therapy in Bahir
Dar town
 STEP 4 IDENTIFYING OBSTACLES & LIMITATIONS

• Obstacles /limitations are any situations or factors

that may prevent the achievement of each objective
• Obstacles /limitations could be
– Resources
- People
- Equipment
- Money
- Time
- Information
 CONT…

– Environmental
- Geographical features
- Climate
- Social factors
• Obstacles are either removable, modified or can not
be changed
• This step is used to :
– Identify obstacles to the achievement of a goal
– Analyze ways of overcoming obstacles
– Recognize limitations that cannot be diminished
 STEP 5-DESIGNING STRATEGIES

• Strategies are the tactics or techniques that should

be devised or adopted & utilized to facilitate the
achievement of objectives.

• Strategies are ways of achieving objectives

• The potential strategies often include

– Technology to be applied
– Procedures to be used
• For each chosen strategy, the corresponding
activities to be undertaken & resource needed
should be detailed, including
– Who will do the activities (job description)
– Which things would be needed (resources)
– Where the work will be done
– The method of controlling, etc.
 STEP 6 WRITING THE PLAN

• The purpose of writing the plan

 To request resource /funds
 For monitoring & evaluating the implementation
process by all concerned bodies
 OUT LINE FOR WRITING THE PLAN

1. Summary of the main point

2. A problem statements (Explanation of the back
ground, the problem to be dealt with & the reason for
under taking the plan).
3. Objectives to be achieved should be clearly stated
4. Strategies and activities
5. Resources needed & their utilization
6. Methods of monitoring & evaluation
 PLANNING TOOLS

• Planning tools are techniques used to help develop

plans.
• Some planning tools are:
 The Delphi methods
• -Various experts are asked to answer independently,
in writing a series of questions-related to planning
 Nominal group techniques
• -Silent generation of ideas & discussion for
clarification ,editing and priority setting
 Cont…

 The nominal group technique and Delphi methods

are techniques that are used to improve group
consensus.
 These techniques are important as the planning
process is increasingly considered a joint venture of
many concerned parts
 SWOT analysis

SWOT (Strength and weakness, opportunities and

threats)
• a strategic planning tool that matches internal
organizational strengths and weakness with external
opportunities and threats.

• Strengths may be availability of

– resources
– trained human power
– appropriate technology
– good management experience
 Cont…

• Weakness include
– lack of dedicated staff
– high staff turn over
– obsolete facilities
• Opportunities:- are positive or favorable factors in
the external environment
• Example – Clear and supportive government policies
 Cont..

• Threats:- are negative or unfavorable external

factors in the environment
Example
- Worsening economic conditions
- Fast growing population
-Natural disaster
-Shrinking resources etc
 SWOT Analysis: a framework for
selecting strategies – SWOT matrix

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 WHY PLANS FAIL?

• When it is not integrated to the total management

system
• Lack of understanding of the different steps of the
planning process
• When the concerned parties are not participating in
the planning process
 WHY PLANNING FAILS CONT…

• When management expects that plans will be

realized with little effort
• When too much attempt at once
• When failing to operate by the plan
• Unforeseen/unexpected change in the environment
 CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY

• It is a well known fact that planning is vital for every

operation weather personally or organizationally
performed.

• “ If you fail to prepare , you prepare to fail “

• No plan, No work !!!!!!!!

 Types of Plans

Plans can be classified on different bases or

dimensions.

The important ones are:

• Repetitiveness
• Time dimension, and
• Scope/breadth dimension
 Classification of Plans Based on Repetitiveness
1. Standing Plans
2. Single-use Plans
Standing Plans
• That can be used again and again
• That are followed each time a given situation
encountered
• Include mission or purpose, goal or objective,
strategy, policy, procedure, method, and rule.
Purpose or Mission
• The terms can be used interchangeably
• Identify the basic function of organization
Objectives or goals
• The terms can be used interchangeably
• The ends toward which activity is aimed
• The end point of planning
• The end point of organizing, staffing, leading, and
controlling are aimed
Strategies
• Ways and means to achieve objectives
• Major course of action
• Every objective should have at least one strategy
Policies
• General statements or understandings that guide or
channel thinking in decision making
• Define an area within which a decision is to be made
• Help decide issues before they become problems
• Many types of policies
• Often interpreted as “ ten commandments” – no room
for discretion
Procedures
• Show the sequence of activities
• Guides to action
• Help in the implementation of policies
Methods
• More detailed
• Only concerned with the single operation
Rules
• Spell out specific required actions or non-actions, allowing
no discretion
• Rules, procedures and methods by their very nature, are
designed to repress thinking; we should use them only when
Single-use Plans
• Are those plans that are not used up once the
objective is accomplished
• Used only once
• Include programs, projects and budgets
Programs
• Complex of goals, policies, procedures, rules, task
assignments, steps to be taken, resources to be
employed, and other elements necessary
• Supported by budgets
Budgets
• Statement of expected results expressed in
numerical terms
• Fundamental planning instrument
project
• Part of general program
• Can be handled by itself
 Classification of Plans Based on Time

1. Long-range planning
• the time may range usually from 5-10 years
• Distant future
• The development of a plan for accomplishing a goal
over a period of several years.
• e.g., strategic planning.
2. Short-range planning
• Complementary of long- range plans
• Constitute the steps towards the implementation of
long-range plans
• Generally 1 year, sometimes up to 2 years
• tactical planning e.g., annual plan of
immunization

3. Intermediate-range planning
• Ranges between long and short- range plans
Classification of Plans Based on Scope/Breadth
1. Strategic Planning
2. Tactical Planning
3. Operational Planning
Strategic Planning
• Process of analyzing and deciding on the organization's
mission, objectives, major strategies, major resource
allocation
 Strategic planning is:
• performed by top level mangers
• mostly long range in its time frame
• expressed in relatively non-specific terms
• type of planning that provide general direction
• designed to meet an organization’s broad goals

 the assumption:
• the environment is indeed changeable, often in
unpredictable ways
• That an organization must be responsive to a
dynamic, changing environment.
Strategic planning

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 Strategic…

• Strategic planning is the process of

clarifying an organization’s mission, and
then identifying goals, strategies, and
resources needed to achieve that mission.
Thus
• Strategic planning can be used to
determine mission, vision, values, goals,
objectives, roles, responsibilities,
timelines, etc. 65
 Strategic planning…

• Is higher order planning involving

key decision makers ( top level
managers ) in the organization that
set its goals for achievement in the
longer term.

66
Being strategic means
 clear about the organization's objectives,
 aware of the organization's resources, and
 responsive to a dynamic environment.
• Strategic thinking:
• "Are we doing the right thing?"
1. a definite purpose be in mind
2. understanding of the environment
3. creativity in developing effective responses to
those forces.
Tactical Planning
• Refers to the process of developing action plans
through which strategies are executed
• Departmental managers in organizations are often
involved in tactical planning.
Examples are:
• Developing annual budget
• Choosing specific means of implementing strategic
plans
• Deciding on course of action
Operational Planning
• Most specific and detailed
• Concerned with day-to-day activities
• Short-range and more specific and more detailed.
• Contains details for carrying out or implementing,
those plans in day-to-day activities.
Strategic Plan vs. Operational Plan
1.Time horizon: long time versus short time
2.Scope: wide range of goals versus narrow range
operations.
3.Degree of detail: simplistic and general versus
detail and specific activities.
 PLANNING OUTCOMES

• Items that traditionally are considered to be

outcomes of planning are:
Organizational Vision, Mission, Objectives, and
Strategies, and unit Operational Policies, and
Procedures.
 Mission and vision statement

Mission
• An organization’s mission is:
- its purpose,
- its reason for being,
- provides orientation, consistency, and meaning to
the organization’s decisions and activities at all
levels.
• The Mission Statement describes clearly and
concisely why the organization exists.
• It should be re-examined periodically by current
staff .
Why does an organization need a Mission?
• allows members of an organization to clearly
understand why they are doing the work.
• Only when health workers are aware of the
organizational mission or ultimate purpose, will
they fully understand the meaning and the value
of their efforts.
EXERCISE:
• -Construct the Mission Statement of a an
institution.
CONSTRUCTING THE MISSION STATEMENT
To construct or revise a Mission Statement,
• the Board of Directors and Managers and their
Teams must carefully scan the internal and
external environments before answering four basic
questions:
A. What do we do?
B. Whom do we serve?
C. How do we do it? and
D. Why do we do it?
• Finalize and disseminate the Mission Statement to
staff, and board members, those who are served
A. What do we do?
• -Describe the purpose of the organization: what
it does/what it will do.
• The planning team must clearly identify and
define the needs of the populations to be
served and specify which of these needs the
organization intends to address.
E.g. Our mission is to contribute to reducing the
number of unwanted pregnancies (the what) by
providing uninterrupted access to high-quality,
modern methods of contraception, so that men
and women of reproductive age can control the
B. Whom do we serve?
• Define the target population.
• The Mission Statement should specify which
groups within the target population are the
organization’s priorities.
E.g. Our mission is to contribute to reducing the
number of unwanted pregnancies by providing
uninterrupted access to high-quality, modern
methods of contraception, so that men and
women of reproductive age (the who) can control
the number and spacing of pregnancies.
C. How do we do it?
• Describe the means, resources, or strategies by
which the organization tends to reach its
goals.
E.g. Our mission is to contribute to reducing the
number of unwanted pregnancies by providing
uninterrupted access to high-quality, modern
methods of contraception (the how), so that
men and women of reproductive age can control
the number and spacing of pregnancies.
D. Why do we do it?
• Explores the basic reasons behind the
organization’s decision to do what it does.
• The answer generally describes a response to a
broad social problem.
E.g. Our mission is to contribute to reducing the
number of unwanted pregnancies by providing
uninterrupted access to high-quality, modern
methods of contraception, so that men and
women of reproductive age can control the
number and spacing of pregnancies (the why).
 Where are we going?

• Create a Vision,
• It is the moment to dream, to decide, what
your organization wants to be in the future, and
• How it wants to be viewed by the outside world.
• The vision is like a guiding star.
• The vision guides and focuses the organization’s
efforts and helps to align, inspire, motivate, and
secure the commitment of each working group
and individual within the organization.
 CREATING A SHARED VISION

• A vision is more powerful when a large

number of people from various organizational
levels develop it together than comes from the
organization’s upper levels.
 CONSTRUCTING THE VISION

• STEP-BY-STEP
• In constructing the vision, you and your
planning team should follow four steps.
Step 1. Keep the big picture in mind. Refer to
your organization’s mission and the population
you are supposed to serve so that the vision
aligns with the mission.
Step 2. Answer the following questions:
• What will our organization look like in three to
five years?
• What aspects of mission will we have achieved
• What will make us most proud? (e.g. quality of
our services, commitment, creativity, financial
stability, etc.)
• What values do we uphold, and how will they be
reflected in our services and the way we run our
organization?
 Write down the answers to each of the questions
and come to consensus within your team.
step 3. Look at your organization through the eyes of
your target population, beneficiaries, donors,
partners, collaborators, competitors, and society
in general. For each of these groups, ask:
• How do we want these groups to see our
organization in three to five years?
• What will they say about our services?
• What will they say about our staff?
• What will they say about our reputation in
their communities?
 Write down the answers to each of the
questions and come to consensus within your team.
Step 4. Translate these ideas into a few
sentences that describe the desired future in the
future in a concrete manner;

E.g. Stop Partnership: Stop TB Partnership: Our

vision is a TB-free world: the first children born
this millennium will see TB eliminated in their
lifetimes.
Thank you!!

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