Heat and Thermodynamics.

Heat
It is the form of energy which produces the sensation of warmth to us. If we supply
heat to any system or object , the molecules of the object start to vibrate about
their mean position possessing kinetic energy. The total sum of kinetic energy of
molecules of any object gives heat energy of that object.
The SI unit of heat is Joule but it is also measured in calorie in CGS unit.
Temperature
It is the measurement of degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The average
kinetic energy of the molecules gives the temperature of that object. As the
temperature increases, molecular motion increases. Therefore, the kinetic energy
of the particles also increases.
The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).
Difference between heat and temperature
Heat Temperature
1. Heat is a form of energy which gives the sensation 1. Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of
of warmth. a body.
2. It represents the total kinetic energy of the 2. It represents the average kinetic energy possessed
molecules of the body. by the molecules of the body.
3. It is measured in calories or joule unit. 3. It is measured in Celsius scale, Fahrenheit Scale or
Kelvin scale
4. It is measured by calorimeter 4. It is measured by thermometer.
5. Heat does not decide the flow of heat itself. 5. Difference of temperature decides the direction of
flow of heat. Heat always flows from higher
temperature to lower temperature.
Thermal equilibrium
When a body at higher temperature is brought in contact with another
body at lower temperature, the hot body cools down and the cold body
warms up until both the bodies come in equal temperature. This is due to
the flow of heat from high temperature body to low body temperature.
This condition of equal temperature achieved by two bodies in contact
are thermal equilibrium.
The principle of thermal is applied in the measurement of temperature.
To measure our body temperature using as a mercury thermometer,
liquid mercury is used as the thermometric substance. The liquid mercury
receives the heat from the body. The heat gained by the mercury causes it
to expand and hence its level rises in capillary tube. The new level of
mercury in capillary tube shows the temperature of mercury itself.
Actually the thermometer shows the temperature of mercury; however it
is equal to the temperature of our body because of the thermal
equilibrium of our body and the mercury in the bulb of thermometer.
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics
Zeroth law states that “ If two bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium and B and C
are also in thermal equilibrium, then body A is in thermal equilibrium with body C”

A C

Fig :Bodies in thermal equilibrium

In the figure, body A and body B are connected with a thermal conductor, so they
become in thermal equilibrium. Also, wall between body B and C is also thermally
conducting; hence these two bodies are also in thermal equilibrium. But the wall
between A an C is insulated. Although the wall between A and C is insulated, they
are also in thermal equilibrium.
Let TA, TB and TC be the temperatures of connecting bodies A, B and C respectively,
then TA = TB and TB = TC . Hence, TA = TC .This law leads to the concept of the
fundamental quantity of temperature.
 Temperature Scale
The devices which measures the temperature are called temperature scales. For daily life, Celsius
and Fahrenheit scale are used. Kelvin scale is scientific scale, it is relatively inconvenient for daily
use. To develop the relation of various thermometer scales, the melting point of ice and boiling
point of water at standard temperature and pressure are taken as standard reference.
Let C, F and K be the temperatures of a body in Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale respectively.
The relation of these scales in equivalent form is
At what point of thermometric scale does Kelvin scale reading coincide with Fahrenheit
scale ?
Solution;
Let x be the point at which Fahrenheit scale and kelvin scale show the same reading.
F=K=x
From the relation of temperature scales,

9x- 2457 = 5x – 160

4x = 2297
x = 574.25
So, 574.25 K = 574.25 F
At what temperature do the Fahrenheit thermometer and Celsius thermometer
show the same reading?
Solution;
Let x be the point at which Fahrenheit scale and Celsius scale show the same
reading.
F=c=x
From the relation of temperature scales,

180x = 100x – 3200

80x = -3200
x = -40
- 40 0C = -40 0F
They show the same reading at - 40
Absolute zero :
The temperature of an ideal gas at which the gas would exert no pressure at all is
known as absolute zero. Theoretically, the gas exert no pressure at -273.15oC (0K).
At this temperature , the volume of this gas is ideally zero. At this temperature, the
molecular speed ceases.
The lowest temperature at which a gas is supposed to have zero pressure (and zero
volume) and at which entire molecular motion stops is called absolute zero
temperature. P

-273.15 -200 -100 0 o

C

Absolute zero
Calibration of Thermometer
The process of providing scale to a new thermometer to measure temperature of
an object is known as calibration of thermometer.
To calibrate a thermometer , at least two points have to be fixed which are known
as upper fixed point and lower fixed point.
1. Upper fixed point (U.F.P) : The thermometer which is to be calibrated is kept
inside the hypsometer containing pure water boiling at standard pressure without
dipping inside the boiling water; to avoid from convection process. Steam comes
out and condensed and is collected inside beaker in the form of water. After
sometime, the thermometric substance remains constant at some level which is
marked as upper fixed point.
2. Lower fixed point (L.F.P) : The thermometer bulb is kept inside a funnel
containing ice melting at standard pressure. The decreasing level of thermometric
substance inside the thermometer remains constant some level which is marked
as the lower fixed point.

Calibration of thermometer
 Liquid thermometers
Mercury and Alcohol are liquid thermometers. In mercury thermometer, liquid
mercury is used as the thermometric substance where as in alcohol thermometer,
liquid alcohol is used. Since the freezing point of alcohol is smaller than freezing
point of mercury, it can be used to measure the temperature at very cold places.
On the other hand, boiling point of mercury is greater than alcohol, it can be used
to measure temperature at hot places.
Causes of Mercury as a thermometric liquid:
1. It has low specific heat capacity.
2. It can be used in wide temperature range i.e. -39oC to 357oC.
3. It does not stick on the capillary tube, hence the expansion is easier.
4. It is shiny, so temperature can be observed easily and clearly.
5. Its linear expansivity is almost uniform with change in temperature.
Reasons for using Alcohol as a thermometric liquid
1. Its freezing point is very low, so it can be taken to cold places to measure the
atmospheric temperature.
2. Its expansivity is very small, so it can be more sensitive than mercury
thermometer.

Questions:
At what temperature will the Celsius scale reading double the Fahrenheit scale ?
Why heat flows from the body at higher temperature to the body at lower
temperature ?