GONO BISHWABIDYALAY

Department of Pharmacy
Course Title: Inorganic, Semester: 1st, Group No: B

ASSIGNMENT ON: “ATOMIC STRUCTURE”

Group Member:
Mst. Farhana Yesmen mim- 24131006 Submitted to
Md. Ismail Hossain- 24131007
Shorna Akter Srishty- 24131008
Anik Kumar Dey
Aysha Julekha Maya- 24131009 Assistant Lecturer, Pharmacy Department
Efath Jahan Oboni- 24131010
Gono Biswabidyalay
Submission Date: 09 th May 2024
Rutherford Model

•An atom contains electrons, neutrons and protons.

Many scientists have formulated the structure of
atoms. But the most fundamental and well-
explained model was given by scientist Ernest
Rutherford. This model is Rutherford’s atomic model.
•Atomic Model of Rutherford:
•In 1904 J.J. Thomson suggested a plum pudding
model of the atomic structure. Later in 1911,
Physicist Ernest Rutherford conducted his alpha
scattering experiment to study the Thomson model.
In this investigation, he fired a beam of alpha
particles at a thin foil of gold and observed the
trajectory of those particles. Based on his inference
he proposed a structural model for the atom.
Rutherford Model

According to the Rutherford atomic model:

•The positive charge and most of the mass of an
atom is concentrated in an extremely small volume.
He called this region of the atom as a nucleus.
•Rutherford’s model proposed that the negativity
charged electrons surround the nucleus of an atom.
He also claimed that the electrons surrounding the
nucleus revolve around it with very high speed in
circular paths. He named these circular paths as
orbits.
•Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus
being a densely concentrated mass of positively
charged particles are held together by a strong
electrostatic force of attraction.
Limitation Of Rutherford’s
Model

Rutherford’s atomic model was experimentally successful and found acceptance

within the scientific community. However, it could not explain certain vital
things about atoms.

1. His theory and model could not explain the stability of the atoms.
According to Rutherford’s observation, the electrons in an atom move at
higher speeds around its nucleus in circular orbits. This behavior
contradicted Maxwell’s observations. Maxwell explained that the
acceleration of the charged particles in the atoms causes them to release
electromagnetic radiation. Thus, the electrons moving around the nucleus
in an atom must constantly emit electromagnetic radiation. Rutherford’s
atomic model did not explain these facts.
2. The electromagnetic radiations of the electron have energy due to their
kinetic motion. However, it will cause their orbit to shrink as they
continuously emit energy and collapse in the nucleus. And if we compare
this with Maxwell’s theory, it will happen within 10-8 seconds. And
therefore, we can say that Rutherford’s model does not comply with
Maxwell’s theory, and it fails to explain the stability of the atoms.

3. Rutherford’s atomic model does not explain any arrangement of electrons

in orbit, so it remains incomplete. It is one of the major limitations of
Rutherford’s atomic model.
4. An atom is composed of positively charged particles. A small region in
the atom, called the nucleus, concentrates most of this positive charge.
Later discoveries of protons and neutrons nullify this hypothesis of the
Rutherford model.
 Conclusion

This model correctly surmised the nature

of neutrality of atoms, but its
propositions were not correct when
matched with later experimental result.
Rutherford’s atomic model first gave the
idea of the structure of atoms. It marked
the basis of quantum mechanics. The
Rutherford atomic model also helped in
the further development of quantum
mechanics.
 •The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It came
into existence with the modification of Rutherford’s model of an atom.
•Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus (positively Charged) surrounded
by negative electrons moving around the nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that
an electron located away from the nucleus has more energy and the
electron which is closer to nucleus has less energy. Salient features of Neil
Bohr atomic model are:
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable orbits without emission

Bohr’s Model of radiant energy. Each orbit has a definite energy and is called an
energy shell or energy level.
• An orbit on energy level is designed as K, L, M, N shells. When the
electron is in the lowest energy level, it is said to be in the ground state.
• An electron emits or absorb energy when it jumps from one orbit or
energy level to another. When it jumps from a higher energy level to
lower energy level it emits while it absorbs energy when it jumps from a
lower energy level to a higher energy level.
• The energy absorbed or emitted is equal to the difference between the
energies of the two energy levels (E1, E2) and is determined by plank’s
equation.
• ΔE = E2-E1 = h𝜈
Bohr’s Model

•Where,
•ΔE = energy absorbed or emitted
•h= Plank’s constant
•𝜈= frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted or
absorbed
•The angular momentum of an electron revolving in
energy shells is given by:
•meVr= nh/2π
•Where,
•N=number of corresponding energy shell; 1, 2, 3 …..
•me= mass of the electron
•V= velocity
•r= radius
•h= Plank’s constant
 Limitations of Bohr’s Model of An Atom

1. It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The Bohr atomic model theory considers electrons to have
both a known radius and orbit i.e., known position and momentum at the same time, which is impossible
according to Heisenberg.
2. The Bohr atomic model theory made correct predictions for smaller sized atoms like hydrogen, but poor
spectral predictions are obtained when larger atoms are considered.
3. It failed to explain the Zeeman effect when the spectral line is split into several components in the presence
of a magnetic field.
 Quantum Number

Quantum number are those numbers that designate and distinguish various atomic orbitals and electrons present in an atom. A set of four
numbers through which we can get the complete information about all the space, type of orbital occupied and even the orientation of that
orbital is called Quantum Number.
There are four quantum number-
1. Principal number
2. Azimuthal or Subsidiary quantum number
3. Magnetic quantum number
4. Spin quantum number

1. The Principal Quantum Number represents the principal energy level or shell in which an electron revolves around the nucleus. It is
denoted by the letter n and can have any integral value except the 0 i.e., n = 1, 2, 3, 4 … …. etc. The energies of the various principal shells
will follow the sequence as:
K < L < M < N < O…..
1< 2 < 3 < 4 < 5…….
 Quantum Number

2. Azimuthal Quantum Number Azimuthal quantum number, also known as orbital quantum
number, determines the subshell to which an electron belongs. As a matter of result, the number of
electronic jumps increases and the number of lines at the same time.

For a given value of n, it can have any integral value ranging from 0 to n – 1.
For the 1st Shell, say K, n =1, you can have only one value i.e., l = 0
4. Spin Quantum Number Spin
For the 2nd Shell, say L, n = 2, you can have two values i.e., l = 0 and 1
Quantum Number represents the direction
For the 3rd Shell, say M, n = 3, you can have three values i.e., l = 0, 1 and 2
of the spin of the electrons. This can
For the 4th shells, say N, n = 4, you can have 4 values i.e., l = 0, 1, 2 and 3
either be in the direction of clockwise or
even anti-clockwise. Spin Quantum
3. Magnetic Quantum Number Magnetic Quantum Number denoted by the symbol m is what
represents the orientation of atomic orbital in space. The value of the Magnetic Quantum Number, Number is denoted by the symbol s. It can
m, depends on the value of l. Magnetic Quantum Number can have a total number of (2l + 1). have about only two values i.e., +1/2 or -
Sublevel l ml 1/2.
s 0 0
p 1 -1, 0, +1
d 2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
f 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle is one of the most celebrated results of
quantum mechanics and states that one (often, but not always) cannot know
all things about a particle (as it is defined by its wave function) at the same
time. This principle is mathematically manifested as non-commuting
operators.
Statement:
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle states that there is inherent uncertainty in
the act of measuring a variable of a particle. Commonly applied to the
position and momentum of a particle, the principle states that the more
precisely the position is known the more uncertain the momentum is and vice
versa.
Uncertainties in the products of “conjugate pairs” (momentum/position) and
(energy/time) were defined by Heisenberg as having a minimum value
corresponding to Planck’s constant divided by 4π.
More clearly:
ΔpΔx≥h4π (1)
ΔtΔE≥h4π (2)
Where Δ refers to the uncertainty in that variable and h is Planck's constant.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle
Consequences

The Heisenberg Principle has large bearing on practiced science

and how experiments are designed. Consider measuring the
momentum or position of a particle. To create a measurement,
an interaction with the particle must occur that will alter its
other variables. For example, in order to measure the position
of an electron there must be a collision between the electron
and another particle such as a photon. This will impart some of
the second particle's momentum onto the electron being
measured and thereby altering it. A more accurate measurement
of the electron's position would require a particle with a smaller
wavelength, and therefore be more energetic, but then this
would alter the momentum even more during collision. An
experiment designed to determine momentum would have a
similar effect on position. Consequently, experiments can only
gather information about a single variable at a time with any
amount of accuracy.
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

Pauli Exclusion Principle

Pauli's Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have identical
values for all four of their quantum numbers. The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that, in an
atom or molecule, no two electrons can have the same four electronic quantum numbers. As an
orbital can contain a maximum of only two electrons, the two electrons must have opposing
spins. This means if one electron is assigned as a spin up (+1/2) electron, the other electron must
be spin-down (-1/2) electron.

Statement
The Pauli exclusion principle states that in a single atom, no two electrons will have an
identical set or the same quantum numbers (n, l, ml, and ms). To put it in simple terms, every
electron should have or be in its own unique state (singlet state). There are two salient rules
that the Pauli exclusion principle follows:
Only two electrons can occupy the same orbital.
The two electrons that are present in the same orbital must have opposite spins, or they
should be antiparallel.
However, the Pauli exclusion principle does not only apply to electrons, it applies to other
particles of half-integer spin, such as fermions. It is not relevant for particles with an integer
spin, such as bosons which have symmetric wave functions. Moreover, bosons can share or
have the same quantum states, unlike fermions. As far as the nomenclature goes, fermions
are named after the Fermi–Dirac statistical distribution that they follow. Bosons, on the other
hand, get their name from the Bose-Einstein distribution function.
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

Importance and Applications of Pauli Exclusion Principle:

• The Pauli exclusion principle helps to explain a wide variety of physical

phenomena, such as the electron shell structure of atoms and the way
atoms share electrons.

• It helps in describing the various chemical elements and how they

participate in forming chemical bonds.

• The periodic table can also be defined with the help of this principle.

• Solid-state properties: Many electrical, optical, magnetic, mechanical

and chemical properties of solids are the direct consequence of Pauli
exclusion.

• The principle helps in describing the stability of large systems with

many electrons and many nucleons.

• Apart from Chemistry, the principle is a fundamental principle in

quantum mechanics which is mainly studied in Physics.
 Aufbau Rule
Importance and Applications of Pauli Exclusion Principle:

According to the Aufbau principle, electrons first occupy those orbitals whose
energy is the lowest before filling higher energy ones (Aufbau is German roots
for" Building up "). By following this principle, we can predict the electron
configurations for atoms or ions.

A diagram illustrating the order in which atomic orbitals are filled is provided
below. Here ' n 'refers to the principal quantum number and 'l ' is the azimuthal
quantum number. The Aufbau principle can be used to understand the location
of electrons in an atom and their corresponding energy levels.

For example,

Carbon has six electrons, and its configuration is given below-

C (6) ----->1s² 2s² 2p²

It is important to note that each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.
 Aufbau Rule
Features of Aufbau principle:

• According to the Aufbau principle, the energy of orbitals increases can be determined with
the help of (n+l) rule, where the sum of the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers
determines the energy level of the orbital.

• Lower (n+l) values correspond to lower orbital energies. If two orbitals share equal (n+l)
values, the orbital with the lower 'n' value is said to have lower energy associated with it.

Exceptions of Aufbau principle:

The Aufbau principle works for nearly every element tested. There are two exceptions to this
principle. Chromium and Copper are the only exceptions to this principle because they want
to have a symmetrical distribution of electrons since this would make the elements more
stable.

Cr (24) --->1s² 2s² 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d⁴

*--->1s² 2s² 3p⁶ 4s¹ 3d⁵

Chromium wants to keep its sublevel half filled (3d ⁵ instead of 3d¹) in order to achieve this
stability an excited electron from the 4s orbital moves to the 3d subshell. This is achievable
for these elements because the 4s and 3d subshells are close in energy and the 4s orbital has a
lot of electron revulsion. So, it's easier for them to remove a 4s electron.
 Hund’s Rule
Hund’s Rule

According to Hund’s rule, Electrons are distributed among the

orbitals of a subshell in such a way is to give the maximum number
of unpaired electrons and having the same direction of spin.

Aufbau principle tells us that the lowest energy orbitals get filled by
electrons first. After the lower energy orbitals are filled, the electrons
move on to highest energy orbitals. The problem with this Features
of Hund's rule:

 Before the double occupation of any orbital, every orbital in the

sub level is singly occupied.
 For the maximization of total spin, all electrons in a single
occupancy orbital have the same spin rule is that it does not tell
about the three 2p orbitals and the order that they will fill in.
 Hund’s Rule
Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
It states that for a given electron configuration, the term with maximum
multiplicity falls lowest in energy. According to this rule electron paring in p,
d, f orbitals cannot occur until each orbital of a given subshell contains one
electron each or is singly occupied.

Explanation of Hund's Rule:

The electrons enter an empty orbital before pairing up. The electrons repel
each other as they are negatively charged. The electrons do not share orbitals
to reduce repulsion.
When we consider the second rule, the spins of unpaired electrons in singly
occupied orbitals are the same. The initial electrons spin in the sub level
decides what the spin of the other electrons would be. For instance, a carbon
atoms electron configuration would be -
C (6) -->1s² 2s² 2p²
The same orbital occupied by the two 2s electrons although different orbitals
will be occupied by the two 2p electrons in reference to Hund’s rule.
Scope And Application of
Inorganic Compound

Inorganic compounds are used as catalysts,

pigments, coating, surfactants, medicines, fuels
and many more. They often have high melting
point’s and specific high or low electrical
conductivity properties, which make them useful
for specific purposes.
For example, Ammonia is a nitrogen source in-
fertilizer.
Classification of inorganic compounds:
1. acids
2. bases
3. salts
4. oxides
 Pharmaceutical uses of
inorganic compounds

Pharmaceutical uses of inorganic compounds:

Pharmaceutical inorganic chemistry is a subfield of pharmaceutical chemistry that focuses

on the Study of inorganic compounds and their applications in the development of
pharmaceuticals and medicine treatments. It plays a crucial role in the design, Synthesis,
characterization, and analysis of inorganic compounds that have therapeutic properties on
are used as components in pharmaceutical formulations.

Inorganic pharmaceuticals are useful in many ways. Those are given below:

1. For therapeutic purpose. For example- Astringents, antimicrobial (Aluminium citrate),

Antimicrobials (sodium benzoate) etc.

2. Pharmaceutical aids. For example- Dibasic calcium phosphate, talc etc.

3. To acidify on alkalize body fluid. For example - Antacids, alkalis, mineral acids.

4. Replacing or replenishing the normal content of body fluids. For example: sodium,
potassium, calcium chloride, phosphate etc.

5. As reagents to carry out the reactions. For example - catalysts (platinum, nickel)
oxidizing and reducing agents.

6. In pharmaceutical analysis - titrants such us potassium per manganate, EDTA

Thank You