Chapter - 03

Transmission System
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
 3.0 POWER SYSTEM

 The generation, transmission and distribution of electric power is called

power system.
A power system has the following stages :-
- Generation of electric power.
- Transmission of electric power.
- Distribution of electric power.
 Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current
(A.C).
 High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) technology is used for greater
efficiency over very long distances.
 Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (115 kv or above) to reduce the
energy loss which occurs in long-distance transmission.
 3.1 LAYOUT OF POWER SYSTEM

A power system consists of the following stages :-

1. Power station
2. Primary Transmission
3. Secondary Transmission
4. Primary Distribution
5. Secondary Distribution
 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

 The system by which bulk power is delivered to

the load centres and large industrial consumers
from power stations is called transmission.
 Primary Transmission and Secondary
Transmission
 Primary Transmission- High voltages of the order of 66kv,
132kv, 220kv, 400kv are used for transmitting power by 3
phase 3 wire overhead system. This is supplied to substations
usually at the outskirts of major distribution centre or city.

 Secondary Transmission - On the outskirts of the city, there

are sub-station which step down the primary transmission
voltage to 66kv or 33kv and power is transmitted at this
voltage. This forms the secondary transmission system, 3
phase wire system is used.
 ADVANTAGES OF HIGH VOLTAGE
FOR TRANSMISSION
 Reduces the cost of conductor material.
 Efficiency of transmission increases.
 Percentage line drop is reduced.
 OVERHEAD LINE SYSTEM
• It is less safe.
• It is less expensive.
• Fault occurs frequently.
• They are not restricted by the landscape.
• It gives shabby look.
• It is more flexible.
• Fault points can be easily located.
• Can be easily repaired.
• They can be operated upto 400 kv or higher.
 UNDERGROUND SYSTEM

 It is more safe.
 Less affected by bad weather.
 It is more expensive.
 Very rare chances of faults.
 Take up less right-of-way.
 Its appearance is good as wires are not visible.
 Faults points cannot be easily located.
 Cannot be easily repaired.
 It can work only upto 66kv due to insulation difficulty.
 COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSION LINE

 Line supports – These may be poles or towers, which keep the conductors at
a suitable height from the ground level.
 Conductors are either solid round, stranded or bundled. Strandling provides
flexibility. These may be of copper, aluminium, A.C.S.R or of any other
composition.
 Insulators suspend the energized phase conductors and insulate them from
grounded tower.
 Cross arms are made of wood or steel angle section. They provide support to
the insulators.
 Lightning Arrestor is used to discharge excessive voltage built upon the line
to earth due to lightning.
 Phase plates are provided to distinguish the various phases.
 Earth wire run on the top of the towers to protect the line against the
lightning discharge.
 Fuses and Isolating switches are used to isolate different parts of the
overhead system.
 Barbed wire is wound around over some portion of the pole or tower as
 LINE SUPPORTS
These are also known as poles and towers. Poles are used for L.T
lines and towers are used for H.T lines. These can be of following
types –
 Wooden poles - These are used in rural areas for L.T lines. These
are preferred due to their low cost and natural insulating
properties.
 Steel poles - These are used in urban areas for distribution of
electric power. These are of different shapes : (a) Tubular (b) Rail
poles (c) Steel joists.
 R.C.C. poles – These are also used in urban areas. These have the
advantage of longer life, free from insects and atmospheric
effects. They have good appearance and less maintenance.
 Steel towers – These are used to transmit bulk power at high
voltages. They have greater mechanical strength, longer life and
can withstand the severe climatic conditions.
LINE SUPPORTS
 CONDUCTOR
The most commonly used conductor materials for overhead lines are –
(a) Copper – This is an ideal conductor material for transmission and
distribution of electrical power, but due to high cost and non-
availability in abundance, it has limited applications.

(b) Aluminium – This conductor material is next to copper. It is cheaper

than copper and is used where straight lines are required, due to
non-flexibility.

(c) A.C.S.R (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) – These conductors

have a central core of galvanised steel whereas aluminium
conductors form the outer layer. They are mechanically strong and
lighter in weight. Therefore these can be used for longer spans.
..
INSULATORS
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION LINES

We classify transmission lines with reference to :-

 Voltage
 Distance
 A.C or D.C
 TYPICAL TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE
LEVELS

 the nominal extra high voltage lines in

vogue are ±800 kv hvdc & 765kv, 400kv,
230/220 kv, 110kv and 66kv ac lines.
 DISTANCE
 Short length T.L (< 80 km)
 Medium length T.L ( 80-160 km)
 Long length T.L (>160 km)
 AC or DC

The transmission line may be

ac or dc depending upon the
application.
 3.2 DC TRANSMISSION
ADVANTAGES:-
1. It requires only two conductors as compared to three for a.c
transmission.
2. There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge
problems in d.c. transmission.
3. A d.c. transmission line has better voltage regulation.
4. There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-
section of the line conductor is utilized.
5. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is
less in case of d.c. system.
6. A d.c. line has less corona loss.
7. The high voltage d.c transmission is free from the dielectric losses.
8. There are no stability problems.
 DC TRANSMISSION

DISADVANTAGES :-

1. Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c voltage

due to commutation problems.

2. The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission

of power at high voltages.

3. The d.c switches and circuit breakers have their own

 AC TRANSMISSION

ADVANTAGES :-

1. The power can be generated at high voltages.

2. The maintenance of a.c substations is easier and cheaper.

3. The a.c voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by the

transformers with ease and efficiency. This permits to transmit
power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials.
 AC TRANSMISSION
DISADVANTAGES :-
1. An a.c line requires more copper than a d.c. line.

2. The construction of a.c transmission line is more complicated

than a d.c transmission line.

3. Due to skin effect in the a.c system, the effective resistance of

the line is increased.

4. An a.c line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss

of power due to charging current even when the line is open.
5. An a.c line has corona loss.
 3.3 STRING EFFICIENCY
String efficiency is defined as the ratio of voltage across
the whole string to the product of no of discs in the
string and voltage across the disc nearest to the
conductor.
String efficiency =
Voltage across the string / n x Voltage across disc nearest
to conductor

 Methods to improve it –
(a) By using long cross arms.
(b) By grading the insulators
(c) By using a guard ring.
 TRANSPOSITION OF CONDUCTORS
 The process of changing the positions of
conductors ( spaced unsymmetrically) of a three
phase overhead line at regular distances in order
to make the line constants of three phases
symmetrical, is called transposition of
conductors.
 It is must, when long AC transmission line is to
be erected.
 Because voltage unbalance in long transmission
line becomes remarkable and cannot be
tolerated.
 BUNDLE CONDUCTOR
 A bundle conductor is a conductor made up of two or more
conductors. It is used to transmit bulk power at reduced
losses.
 These are used on Extra high voltage lines to reduce corona
effect and radio interference.
 Bundle conductors consist of three or four conductors for
each phase, separated from each other by means of spacers
at regular intervals. Thus they do not touch each other.
 3.4 Kelvin’s Law
• The most economical area of conductor is that for
which the total annual cost of transmission line is
minimum.
• The transmission line cost forms major part in the
annual charges of a power system.

• Depreciation
• Repair and maintenance
• Loss of energy in the line due to its resistance
• The cost towards the production of the lost energy is considered
• If we decreases the area of the conductor in order to reduce the capital cost, the
line losses increase.
• Similarly, if we increase the conductor cross-section to save the cost towards
copper loss in the line, the weight of copper increases and hence the capital cost
will be more.
• Because of the above reasons, it is difficult to find the economical size of the
conductor. But it becomes easy with the help of kelvin's law.
• Assume
A = Cross section of conductor
• C = total initial cost towards conductor
• C is directly proportional to A
• C∝A
• C = PA
• where P is a constant.
• Let r be the annual rate of interest and depreciation.
The annual fixed cost C1 = Cr = PAr
Since line losses are inversely proportional to the area of the conductor
The annual cost on lost energy,
• C2 = Q/A where Q is a constant.
• Total annual cost C = C1 + C2
• = PAr + Q/A
• For C to be minimum,
• C/dA = 0
• Pr - Q/A2 =0
• Pr = Q/A2
• Pr.A2 = Q
• A2 = Q/Pr
• Limitations of Kelvin's Law
This law has many problems and limits as we are selecting the cross-section from
an economical point of [Link] did not consider the electrical behaviour of the
line.
• It is not easy to estimate the energy loss in the line without actual load curves,
which are not available at the time of estimation.
• Kelvin's law did not consider many physical factors like voltage regulation, corona
loss, temperature rise etc.
• The assumption that annual cost on account of interest and depreciation on the
capital outlay is not 100% true.
• The conductor size determined by this law may not be always practicable one.
• The rates of interest and depreciation may vary from time to time.
• The diameter of the conductor may be so small as to cause high corona loss.
• The conductor may be too weak to stamp from mechanical point of view.
• Cost of insulation in cables is assumed to be independent of the cross-section of
the conductor which is only an approx. assumption.
 3.5 SAG
Sag in overhead transmission line conductor refers
to the difference in level between the point of
support and the lowest point on the conductor.
Therefore in order to have safe tension in the
conductor, they are not fully stretched rather a
sufficient dip or sag is provided.
 CORONA
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing
noise and production of ozone gas in
an overhead transmission transmission
line is known as Corona.
 Factors affecting corona –
1. Atmosphere
2. Conductor size
3. Spacing between conductors
4. Line voltage
 Methods of reducing corona effect –
1. Increasing conductor size.
2. By increasing spacing between conductors.