CHAPTER THREE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF
THE 13TH C.
Emergence of States

One important factor for the emergence of states was

the beginning of sedentary agriculture.
State refers to an autonomous political unit having
Population
defined territory
sovereignty and government with the power to decree and
enforce laws.
State was the outcome of regular cultural process.
The first states were theocratic states and priests
(shaman) maintained the social and religious affairs of
their people.
As production became market oriented, Chiefs, began
collecting regular and compulsory tributes known as
protection payments with which they maintained
themselves; their supporters chiefly the army, the
bureaucracy and other followers.
Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa,
where early state formation took place.
Ancient States in North and Northeast
A. Punt
B. Da’amat
C. The Aksumite State
D. Zagwe Dynasty
 A. Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and
the Horn.
The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian
hieroglyphic that tells of a series of naval
expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to
Punt.
Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.)
Pharaoh Asosi
Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.)
Based on this evidences punt was the most important sources
of myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy), frank
incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices,
ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich
feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc.
Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and
medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In
return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes,
bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported
from Egypt to Punt.
Scholars have not reached agreement as to the
exact location of Punt.
It was suggested that may be punt is located in
Northern or northeastern Somalia
Northern Ethiopia and
stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel
Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui
 B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in
Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea

The center of Da’amat was located south of Aksum.

They used politico religious title known as Mukarib based on
5th c B. C inscription.
Various gods and goddesses were worshipped in Da’amat and
pre-Aksumite cultural centers.
There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.
 Major cultural centers in Northern Ethiopia
A. Yeha
 The oldest
 Emerged around 1, 000 BC
 Located northeast of Aksum

B. Hawulti Melazo: Situated to southeast of Aksum

C. Addi-Seglemeni: Located to Southwest of Aksum
There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi
Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra,
Senafe, Tekonda etc.
 C. The Aksumite State
The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-
100 B.C.
In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea
coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau
overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and from the
northern most corner of Eritrea and possibly as far south as
northern parts of Shewa.
Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port
of Aksum.
The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted
mainly of the natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald,
frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and
cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides,
tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like apes.
In turn, a number of manufactured products like garments and
textiles from Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia;
glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic
sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from
Roman Empire and Syria were imported.
Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to
communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca of Greco-
Roman world.
Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside
world notably with the South Arabian region, leading to
exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture.
From the third to seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like
Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and
issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for
both overseas and local transactions.
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the
world
 Roman Empire

 Persia

 China

 Aksum) at the time.

It was a major naval and trading power from the

1st to the 7th c.
 The decline of Aksumite state
 The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late seventh
century because of internal and external challenges.
 Factors for its decline
 Environmental degradation

 decline in agricultural productivity and

 plague infestation started to weaken it

 With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702
Aksumite international trade came under the control Arab Muslims,
and Aksumite state was isolated from its old commercial and
diplomatic partners.
Due to this the Aksumite state declined economically,
politically and militarily.
Internally Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local
rebellions.
The recurring rebellions of
 the Beja,

 the Agaw and

 Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the

Aksumite state.
Contribution of Aksumite state
Aksumite civilization had a profound impact upon the on its
successors such as the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the
Gondarine period
Sub-Saharan Africa’s only surviving indigenous script and
calendar
 EOC hymns, chants and paintings
Diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory curving, and
urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces,
stele, rock-hewn churches…)
It also developed complex administrative and governance
system, and agricultural system including irrigation
 D. Zagwe Dynasty
The founder of the Zagwe dynasty is known as Merra-Tekle-
Haimanot.
Merra-Tekle-Haimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter
of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power.
The Agaw served as soldiers and functionaries as the
Aksumites state shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in
the territory of the Agaw.
After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they
successfully took over the state administration.
 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District at Adafa near Roha
(Lalibela).
 The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from the highland provinces of
the ancient Aksumite kingdom
 In the north down to northern Shewa
 In the south; the Lake Tana region and
 In the west; the northern part of what is today Gojjam

 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.

 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region.

 The most important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices while
cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted
coins were imported.
The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's
paintings and the translation of some of religious
works from Arabic into Ge'ez.
Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of
1. Cave
2. semi-hewn
3. monolithic churches
2. Semi-hewn:
With detailed interior decoration and partial
decoration outside.
They are not totally separated from surrounding rock.
Their roofs or walls are still attached to rock
For instance, Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael,
Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el
Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic
They had detailed decoration inside including roof
and outside.
They are completely separated (carved out) from
surrounding rock
Example, Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete
Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem
Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanialem is
the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most
finely built in the shape of the cross.
Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and
mitigate or avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians
encountered in journey to Holy Lands at least once in their
lifetime.
This was done by constructing churches based on the model of
Holy Lands in Israel.
 The decline of the Zagwe Dynasty
1. Internal problems of royal succession
2. Oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient
rulers of Aksum.
 Zagwe kings were considered as “illegitimate rulers” based on the
legend of the Queen of Sheba.
 “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was
“usurped” by the Zagwes.
 Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last
Aksumite king Dil Na’od defeated and killed the last Zagwe king
Yitbarek.
 Yekuno-Amlak took the state power contending the “restoration” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty
East, Central, Southern, and Western States
A. Bizamo
 It was located on the southern bend of Abay around the
Wambara area.
 It was founded in the 8th c and had early connections with
Damot.
B. Damot
 It was strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most
of the lands to south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana
as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the 13th
century.
C. Enarya
 It was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.
 The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
 Enarya kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-Tato) was
secluded and considered as sacred. He communicated visitors
through an intermediary, Afe Busho.
 The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-
rasha (king's spokesman) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
 The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
D. Gafat
 Historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile)
 It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Adere
and the Gurage.
 It is not clear from available records whether the Gafat formed a
“state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
 The Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own indigenous
religion.
 The province was ruled by the title of Awalamo
 Muslim Sultanates
A. Shewa
 Founded by Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent
from Mecca.
 He set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on
northeastern foothill of Shewa.
B. Fatagar
 was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the 11th c.

 It was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat

and barley, fruits, and extensive grazing grounds full of numerous herds
of cattle, sheep and goats.
C. Dawaro
 Located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi
Shebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast.
 They have a currency called hakuna in which transition takes place.

D. Bali
 It was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating
basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
 Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.

 Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands.

 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc.
It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
E. Ifat
 Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain
eastward to the Awash.
 It was established by Umar Walasma

 The sultanate was fertile and well watered.

 Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat,

sorghum, millet and teff, and animal husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas,
variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage completed
the diet.
 Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a
stimulant.
F. Others
 Mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya
and Dawaro)
 Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya,
Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro
and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were established and
flourished.
 External Contacts
Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least
3,000 B. C. These relations may be the region’s earliest
contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman
World.
Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum had
established close relationship with the East Roman or
Byzantine Empire with which it shared common commercial
interest in the Red Sea area against their rival Persians.
Around the middle of the 12th century the Europeans began to
consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and
wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa.
 A myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known
as Prester John began to circulate in Europe.
 Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
 The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was
plough agriculture.
 The mastery of the technology of irrigation also contributed to
the growth of agricultural production.
 The rules according to which members of the society hold,
share and use land constitute is known as the land tenure
system.
The most ancient system of land holding which survived in
many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land
tenure system.
Communal right to land is a group right. Here group refers
to the family, the clan and the other lineage groups to which
the individual belonged.
Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas.
Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of
the families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in
the area over long periods.
The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
They paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the state
theoretically.
Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.
The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly apportioned for their
own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center.
Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as
famous well placed officials used to transfer their position to
their offspring.
B. Handicraft
 Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient
period.
 The social, economic and political conditions of ancient states had
allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields with diverse
forms and applications including metal work, pottery, tannery,
carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry and others.
 However, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
C. Trade
 Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states
that obtained considerable income from both internal and
international trade.
Socio-cultural Achievements
A. Architecture
The engraving of stele the third century AD.
There were totally 58 steles in and around Aksum that can be
grouped into well made and decorated, half completed and
megaliths (not hewn).
The longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the
first in the world). It is highly decorated in all of its four sides.
It represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a
false door at the bottom. It also bears pre-Christian symbols,
which are a disc and a crescent (half moon) at the top.
The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was
successfully erected and represents a ten-storied building with
many windows and a false door at the bottom.
The third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a
nine-storied building with many windows and a false door at
the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side. It is without any
decoration.
The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest
architecture of the Christian world.
It was registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural heritage
in 1978.

B. Writing System
 The Sabean language
 Ge'ez script
C. Calendar
People needed to know and remember the times when the rains
would begin and end as well as the rise and fall of the water
level.
The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic cycles
fell on expertise. In due course, calendars were invented.
Calendars were developed and adopted among various peoples
of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of
moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or group
of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha
(morning star).
 The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13
months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28 days while
the thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama week has only 4
days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each
month has 7 weeks. Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche
Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration
 Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is
added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth
month.
 A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results
from alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation.
 Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually
September 11 (Gregorian). However, it falls on September 12 in
years before the Gregorian leap year.
 The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become the official
calendar of the country.
The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of
12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days.
It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and
his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and
established the first Muslim community (ummah).
Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, “in the
year of the Hijra”).
Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH (“Before the
Hijra”).
D. Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of
fourth century AD.
 Ge'ez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and
Greek numerals, but it lacks individual characters for multiples of
100.
 Numbers are over- and underlined in proper typesetting,
combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts
cannot render this and show separate bars above and below each
character.
Thank You!