Module-III

Ocean Floor Topography and Oceanic

Movements – Waves, Currents and Tides
Introduction
• Seas and Oceans are blue beauties of the planet earth. Oceans are vast body of saline water occupying the great
depressions on the earth. They belong to the hydrosphere and cover almost 97% of it.
• Oceans cover 361 million Sq.km of the earth’s surface. The volume of water is 1.37 billion cubic km. On-shore
and off-shore marine ecosystems are characterized by very distinct features with unique fauna and flora. They
hold many marine habitat and contain a lot of natural resources.
• When we move towards the seashore, we may see the beaches with splashing tides and dancing waves. There is a
bluish water body seen as a straight flat plane denoting the sea-level. Waves coming towards the land break while
nearing towards the coast and subsides while touching the beach.
• The coastline is the boundary between land and ocean. The surface beneath the oceanic waters is characterized
by a lot of relief features. The structure, configuration and relief features of the oceans also vary from each other.
• All major oceans and seas vary in their sizes, shape, depth, areal extension and in all other aspects like
temperature, density, salinity and chemical composition. The marine geological, chemical and biological
information and data are very vast and useful for studying and analyzing the oceans.
The size of the oceans varies markedly, and when ranked from the largest to the smallest, the list is:
• Pacific (155,557,000 square kilometers)
• Atlantic (76,762,000 square kilometers)
• Indian (68,556,000 square kilometers)
• Southern (20,327,000 square kilometers)
• Arctic (14,056,000 square kilometers).

The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean covering more than 30% of the Earth. This is close to half of the water on
Earth.
It touches the west coast border of the Americas along with east Asia and Australia. The equator divides the Pacific
Ocean into two separate parts – North Pacific Ocean and South Pacific Ocean. Pacific means “peaceful” in Latin. It
has the deepest trenches with an average depth of 3800m.

The Atlantic Ocean is situated between the Americas and European/African continents. Atlantic Ocean is the
second largest and saltiest ocean in the world. It resembles an S-shape between the Americas, Europe and Africa.
“Atlantic” originated from the Greek god “Atlas” who carried the sky for eternity. The ocean bottom is composed
of mid-Atlantic Ridge. This submarine mountain range extends all the way from Iceland to 58 degrees South
latitude. It’s part of the longest mountain range in the world. The Vikings, Portuguese and Christopher Columbus
have extensively explored the Atlantic Ocean. Similarly to this day, it’s being used for trade routes such as the
transatlantic trade route.
• Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean surrounding a densely populated region. It contains additional 20% of
water on Earth’s surface. It borders India at the North, East Africa, Australia and the Southern Ocean. Because if
higher water temperature, it has limited marine life. It is bounded by 4 tectonics plate boundaries and may include
an additional plate boundary.

• In 2000, the Southern Ocean is the newest ocean recognized by the International Hydrographic Organization. It
borders Antarctica in its entirety. In terms of size, it’s the fourth largest at 20,327,000 square kilometers. It
extends out to 60 degrees South latitude. It’s an extreme environment and is the least understood of the 5 oceans.
This is because it is unexplored, far from populated areas and has a severe climate. Despite the Southern Ocean
being unexplored, about 80% of all oceans in the world are unexplored. There’s still a lot of work to do for ocean
exploration.

• Arctic Ocean is the world’s smallest and shallowest ocean of all 5 oceans. Further to this, it is the coldest and
least salty ocean. In size, the Arctic Ocean is about the size of Russia. Because it’s located at the North Pole, the
Arctic Ocean has polar ice. But over the years, glaciers have melted threatening sea levels to rise. Despite the
IHO recognizing it as the “Arctic Ocean”, some oceanographers still call it the “Arctic Sea”. The Arctic Ocean is
the most diverse in terms of fish species. It has a wide variety of marine species including whales, jellyfish, etc.
But because of its frigid temperatures, it has little plant life. This makes it one of the most fragile ecosystems on
the planet.
OCEAN FLOOR TOPOGRAPHY
Continental shelf
Starting from land, a trip across an ocean basin along the seafloor would begin with crossing
the continental shelf. The continental shelf is an area of relatively shallow water, usually less
than a few hundred feet deep, that surrounds land. It is narrow or nearly nonexistent in some
places; in others, it extends for hundreds of miles. The waters along the continental shelf are
usually productive, both from light and nutrients from runoff.

Continental slope is the steeply inclined section of the continental margin that leads from the
continental shelf down to the ocean floor. It is the transition zone between the relatively
shallow continental shelf and the deep ocean basin. The slope can vary in steepness, but
typically ranges from about 2 to 5 degrees. The continental slope is an important area for
fishing and oil and gas exploration, as well as for scientific research into the ocean floor and its
geology.

A volcanic mountain or island is a type of landform that is created by volcanic activity.

Volcanic mountains are formed by the eruption of magma or molten rock onto the earth's
surface. Over time, the accumulation of hardened lava, ash, and other volcanic debris can
create a mountainous structure.
Volcanic islands, on the other hand, are formed when volcanic activity occurs underwater, and the resulting eruptions build up a
mountainous structure that eventually rises above the ocean's surface. Examples of volcanic mountains and islands include
Mount St. Helens in the United States, Mount Fuji in Japan, and Hawaii's Mauna Loa and Kilauea volcanoes.

Trench is a long, narrow, and deep depression on the ocean floor. Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean, and they form at
the boundaries where tectonic plates meet. Tectonic plates are massive slabs of the Earth's crust that float on top of the molten
mantle layer. When two plates converge, one plate may slide beneath the other, creating a subduction zone. As the sinking plate
moves deeper into the Earth's mantle, it causes the overlying plate to bend and form a trench on the ocean floor. The world's most
well-known and deepest trench is the Mariana Trench, which is located in the western Pacific Ocean. It reaches a depth of about
36,070 feet (10,994 meters) at its lowest point, known as the Challenger Deep. Other notable trenches include the Peru-Chile
Trench, the Tonga Trench, and the Kermadec Trench. Trenches are important features of the ocean floor and provide valuable
information about the Earth's tectonic processes and the distribution of marine life in the deep ocean.

A continental rise is a gently sloping and thick accumulation of sediment that extends from the base of the continental slope to
the abyssal plain, which is the relatively flat and deep ocean floor that lies beyond the continental shelf. The continental rise is
formed by the accumulation of sediment that has been transported by currents, which are underwater avalanches of sediment-
laden water that flow down the continental slope and deposit sediment at the base of the slope. The sediment that forms the
continental rise can come from a variety of sources, including rivers, glaciers, and eroded rock and soil from the continental shelf
and slope.
The thickness of the sediment on the continental rise can vary widely, ranging from a few hundred meters to several kilometers.
The sediment is often composed of a mix of materials, including clay, silt, sand, and gravel, and can contain a diverse array of
marine life. The continental rise is an important feature of ocean topology because it plays a crucial role in the global carbon
cycle by storing large amounts of organic carbon in the sediment. It also supports a variety of deep-sea ecosystems and provides
valuable information about the geological history of the Earth.

A mid-ocean ridge is a long underwater mountain range that runs down the center of the ocean floor, like the seam of a
baseball. It is a continuous chain of volcanic mountains that stretches for thousands of miles across the global ocean basins.
Mid-ocean ridges are the result of tectonic plate movement, where new oceanic crust is formed at the boundary between two
tectonic plates as they move away from each other. The process of seafloor spreading occurs at the mid-ocean ridge, where
magma rises up from the mantle and creates new oceanic crust. As the plates move apart, the new crust cools and solidifies,
creating a symmetrical pattern of magnetic stripes. These magnetic stripes provide evidence of seafloor spreading and are used
by geologists to study the history of the Earth's magnetic field. The top of the mid-ocean ridge is marked by a series of deep
valleys or rifts that run down the center of the mountain range. These rifts are often filled with hot, mineral-rich water that
supports unique ecosystems of bacteria, tube worms, and other deep-sea organisms. Mid-ocean ridges are one of the most active
tectonic features on Earth and are responsible for shaping the ocean basins over millions of years.

A seamount is a submerged mountain that rises from the ocean floor but does not reach the surface of the water. Seamounts can
vary in size, shape, and composition, and are typically volcanic in origin. Seamounts are usually formed by volcanic activity and
can be found in all of the Earth's oceans. Many seamounts are located near mid-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates are
spreading apart and magma rises to the surface, but they can also be found near volcanic hotspots.
Seamounts are often teeming with life, as they create unique habitats for a variety of marine organisms. They can provide refuge
for fish and other animals, and the nutrient-rich water around seamounts can support a diverse array of plankton and other
microscopic life. Some seamounts are now extinct, having eroded away over time, while others are still active, with volcanic
activity continuing to shape the seamount and the surrounding ocean floor.

Abyssal plain is a vast, flat, and featureless expanse of the deep ocean floor, typically located at depths of 3,000 to 6,000 meters
(9,800 to 19,700 feet) below sea level. Abyssal plains cover over 50% of the Earth's surface and are found in all of the world's
oceans. Abyssal plains are formed by sedimentation of fine-grained materials that slowly settle to the ocean floor over time. The
sediment is typically composed of clay, silt, and sand, which can be transported by ocean currents from continental margins or
from the erosion of mid-ocean ridges and seamounts. The sediment can accumulate to thicknesses of up to several kilometers
over millions of years. Despite their apparent lack of features, abyssal plains are important ecosystems that support a variety of
marine life, including deep-sea fishes, octopuses, and other invertebrates. Some organisms, such as sea cucumbers and sea
urchins, play important roles in recycling nutrients and maintaining the health of the deep-sea ecosystem. Abyssal plains are also
important areas for scientific research, as they provide a window into the geological and biological processes that shape the Earth.
They are studied by geologists to better understand the history of the Earth's crust and the tectonic forces that have shaped it, as
well as by oceanographers to study ocean currents and their impact on marine life.

The ocean floor is a vast and diverse landscape, with a range of topographical features that shape the global ocean basin. These
features include the continental shelf, slope, and rise, which make up the continental margin, as well as deep-ocean features such
as abyssal plains, seamounts, and mid-ocean ridges. The continental margin is the transition zone between the continental
landmasses and the deep ocean basin. It includes the continental shelf, which is the gently sloping and shallow area near the
coast, and the continental slope, which drops steeply down to the abyssal plain. The continental rise is a thick accumulation of
sediment that forms at the base of the continental slope.
Deep-ocean features such as abyssal plains are vast, flat, and featureless areas that make up over 50% of the ocean floor.
Seamounts are submerged volcanic mountains that rise from the ocean floor but do not reach the surface, while mid-ocean ridges
are long underwater mountain ranges that mark the boundary between tectonic plates. The topography of the ocean floor is an
important area of study for scientists, as it provides valuable insights into the geological history of the Earth, the processes that
shape the ocean basins, and the unique ecosystems that thrive in the deep sea.

Oceanic movements refer to the various types of movement or motion that occur within the oceans. These movements can be
caused by a variety of factors, including winds, tides, currents, and differences in temperature and salinity.

Some of the most common oceanic movements include:

• Waves: Waves are created by the wind blowing across the surface of the ocean, and they can travel great distances across the
water. They can be small or large .

• Tides: Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the Earth's oceans. They cause the water level to
rise and fall on a regular basis, and they can be a significant factor in coastal erosion and flooding.

• Currents: Currents are large-scale movements of water within the ocean, and they can be caused by a variety of factors,
including wind, temperature, and differences in salinity. They can have a significant impact on marine life and ocean
ecosystems.
Waves
• Waves are nothing but the oscillatory movements that result in the rise and fall of water surface.

• Waves are a kind of horizontal movements of the ocean water.

• They are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean surface.

• This energy for the waves is provided by the wind.

• A wave has two major parts: the raised part is called as the crest while the low-point is called as the trough.
Ocean Currents
• The ocean currents are the horizontal flow of a mass of water in a fairly defined direction over great distances.
• They are just like a river flowing in an ocean.

• Ocean currents can be formed by the winds, density differences in ocean waters due to differences in temperature
and salinity, gravity and events such as earthquakes.

• The direction of movement of an ocean current is mainly influenced by the rotation of the earth (due to Coriolis
force, most ocean currents in northern hemisphere move in clockwise manner and ocean currents in
southern hemisphere move in an anti-clockwise manner).

Types of Ocean Currents

1.WARM OCEAN CURRENTS:

• Those currents which flow from equatorial regions towards poles which have a higher surface temperature and
are called warm current.
• They bring warm waters to the cold regions.
• They are usually observed on the east coast of the continents in the lower and middle latitudes of both
hemispheres.
• In the northern hemisphere, they are also found on the west coast of the continents in the higher latitudes (E.g.
Alaska and Norwegian Currents).
2.COLD OCEAN CURRENTS:
• Those currents which flow from polar regions towards equator have a lower surface temperature and are called
cold currents.
• They bring cold waters into warm areas.
• These currents are usually found on the west coast of the continents in low and middle latitudes of both
hemispheres.
• In the northern hemisphere, they are also found on the east coast in the higher latitudes (E.g. Labrador, East
Greenland and Oyashio currents).
The ocean currents can be also classified as:
• Surface Currents: They constitute about 10% of all the waters in an ocean. These waters are occupied at the upper
400m of an ocean or the Ekman Layer. It is the layer of the ocean water which moves due to the stress of blowing
the wind and this motion is thus called as Ekman Transport.
• Deep Water Currents: They constitute about 90% of the ocean water. They move around the ocean basin due to
variations in the density and gravity.
Factors influencing the origin and nature of ocean currents,
1. Difference in density
As we all know, the density of sea water varies from place to place according to its temperature and proportion of
salinity.
• The density increases with an increase in salinity and decreases with a decrease in salinity.
• But when the temperature increases, density decreases and when the temperature decreases density
increases.
• This increase and decrease in density due to the differences in temperature and salinity causes the water to
move from one place to another.
• Such a movements of water due to the differences in density as a function of water temperature and salinity is
called as the Thermohaline Circulation.
• In polar regions, due to a lower temperature, the waters will be of high density. This causes the waters to sink
to the bottom and then to move towards the less dense middle and lower latitudes (or towards the equatorial
regions).
• They rise (upwelling) at the warm region and push the already existing less dense, warm water towards the
poles.
2. The earth’s rotation

• Earth’s rotation causes Coriolis force which deflects the air to its right in the northern hemisphere and to its left in the
southern hemisphere-Ferrel’s Law.

• Similarly, oceans water also affected by the Coriolis force and follows the Ferrel’s Law.

• Hence, ocean currents in the northern hemisphere move in a clockwise (towards right) direction and ocean currents in
southern hemisphere moves in an anti-clockwise (towards left) direction (In the Indian Ocean due to the impact of the Asian
monsoon, the currents in the northern hemisphere do not follow this pattern of movements all time).
3. The winds
• The winds like trade winds and westerlies drive the ocean water in a steady flow in front of them.
• When the direction of the winds changes, the direction of the current also gets changed.
Tides
• Tide are the periodical rise and fall of the sea levels, once or twice a day, caused by the combined effects of the

gravitational forces exerted by the sun, the moon and the rotation of the earth.

• They are a vertical movement of waters and are different from movements of ocean water caused by meteorological

effects like the winds and atmospheric pressure changes.

• Note: The water movements which are caused by the meteorological effects like the said above are called

as surges and they are not regular like tides.

• The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent is the major cause of the occurrence of tides (the moon’s gravitational

attraction is more effective on the earth than that of the sun).

• Sun’s gravitational pull and the centrifugal force due to the rotation of earth are the other forces which act along with

the moon’s gravitational pull.

• The highest tides in the world occur in

the Bay of Fundi in Canada.

• When the tide is channeled between

islands or into bays and estuaries, they

are termed as Tidal Currents.

• The regular interval between two high or

two low tides is 12 hours 25 minutes.

Types of Tides

1. TIDES BASED ON THE FREQUENCY

• Semi-diurnal Tide: They are the most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day.
• Diurnal Tides: Only one high tide and one low tide each day.
• Mixed Tide: Tides having variations in heights are known as mixed tides. They generally occur along the west coast of
North America.
2. TIDES BASED ON THE SUN, THE MOON, AND THE EARTH’S POSITIONS
• Spring Tides: When the sun, the moon, and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be higher than normal.
These are called as a spring tides. They occur twice in a month-one on the full moon (Poornima) and the other on the new
moon (Amavasya).
• Neap Tides: Normally after seven days of a spring tide, the sun and the moon become at a right angle to each other with
respect to the earth. Thus, the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon tend to counteract one another. The tides during
this period will be lower than the normal which are called as the neap tides. They also occur twice in a month- during the
first quarter moon and the last quarter moon.
 INTER-TIDAL ZONE

The intertidal zone, also known as the foreshore and seashore and sometimes referred to as the littoral zone, is the area that is
above water at low tide and under water at high tide (i.e., the area between the tide-marks).

EFFECTS OF TIDES
• Tides act as a link between the port and the open sea. Some of the major ports of the world, such as London port on the river
Thames and Kolkata port on river Hugli are located on the rivers away from the sea coast.
• The tidal current clear away the river sediments and slows down the growth of delta.
• It increases the depth of water which helps ships to move safely to the ports.
• It also acts as a source for producing electricity.
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