MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY
MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY
By
JUSTUS ABIMANA
References
• Rozendaal, A. J. (1997). Vector control Methods:
for use by individuals and communities; (WHO
publication).
• Manual of clinical microbiology volume 3 ; by
Murray P. (pp. 1257–1273).
• Herbert, R. H. (1965). A textbook of entomology.
• Cheng, T. C. (1986). General parasitology (2nd ed)
(pp. 572–705).
Module outline
• Introduction
• General xtics of arthoponds (anatomy, physiology
etc)
• Brief classification of arthropods,
Arachnids
• Xtics of arachnids, classification and ecology,
selected diseases causes / and or spread by ticks,
mites, scopions and spiders.
Module outline cont…d
Class insecta.
•Xtics of insects, ecology, life cycle and
metamorphosis. Classifications with atleast an
example in each of the 26 orders.
•Adaptive features for the success of insects,
•Mechanisms of disease transmission
- mechanical vectors,
- biological vectors ( propagative, cyclo-
developmental, cyclo-propagative and trans_ovarian
•Selected Vectors, their biology and control
strategies
Introduction
• Entomology: It is a science that deals with the
study of arthropods
• Arthropods: “Arthro” means jointed and
“Poda” means legs.
• Arthropods are invertebrate animals with
jointed-legs and identified by their peculiar
characteristics.
Introduction
• Medical Entomology: This is a branch of
entomology which deals with arthropods
which affect the health and well-being of man
and vertebrate animals.
• It is a medical science concerned with vectors
that affect human and animal health.
General characteristics of arthropods.
1. They are Bilaterally symmetrical body sub-
divided into segments.
2. There is Body covered with exoskeleton which
is made up of a tough and rigid substance
known as chitin.
3. They have jointed appendages present on some
body segments.
4. They have body cavity between the alimentary
canal and the body wall.
5. They possess an Open circulatory system that
works by diffusion unlike the arteries and veins
in higher animals like humans which are the
closed type.
6. They have ventral ladder type of nervous system
called ganglia.
7. Their growth by molting, which is controlled by
hormones
Why study of arthropods?
They pose a lot of public health concerns:
•In tropical countries, the largest groups of
illnesses are insect-borne.
•It is thus, important to know the habits of the
insect vectors and how they transmit diseases.
•With out knowledge of entomology, it is difficult
to implement control measures of insects (and
other arthropods).
• Arthropods occur in large numbers in domestic
situations and their problems include:
– spoiling food and other materials by their feeding
habits, causing nuisance
– being involved in the transmission of infectious
organisms.
– Others feed on domestic fabrics and structure of
buildings, rendering them unusable or unsound.
– a wide array of arthropods cause toxic reactions in
vertebrates. The cause of intoxication may be direct
(bites, stings, defensive secretions) or indirect
because of hypersensitivity (allergy).
• Beneficial roles of arthropods include:
– They pollinate crops
– They act as food eg grasshoppers
– They provide food and medicines eg honey from bees
– They accelerate decomposition of organic matter eg
beetles and maggots
• It is therefore inevitable to understand
arthropods since their impact on ecosytems range
from beneficial to detrimental.
Vector control
• In 19th century, it was discovered that arthropods and
freshwater snails were responsible for the
transmission of some important diseases.
• Since effective vaccines and drugs were not always
available for the prevention and treatment of these
diseases, control of transmission had to rely mainly
on control of the vector.
• Early control programmes included
- the screening of houses,
- the use of mosquito nets,
- the drainage or filling water bodies used as
breeding sites by insects,
-
• The discovery of dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane
(DDT) was a major breakthrough in the control of
vector-borne diseases. (in 1940s)
• The insecticide was highly effective for killing indoor-
resting mosquitos when it was sprayed on the walls of
houses.
– it was cheap to produce
– remained active over a period of many months.
– DDT also appeared to be effective and economical
in the control of other biting flies and midges and of
infestations with fleas, lice, bedbugs and triatomine
bugs.
• Large-scale application of DDT In an attempt to
control or eradicate the most important vector-
borne diseases;
(malaria, Chagas disease and leishmaniasis) was
adopted by many countries
• Because of their high costs, these programmes
were generally planned for limited periods of
time.
• However, in most countries, success was short-
lived;
the vectors developed resistance to the
pesticides creating a need for new and more
expensive chemicals.
• Suspension of the control programmes
eventually led to a return of disease transmission
to significant levels.
• However where the environment was changed
in such a way that the vectors were prevented
from breeding or resting; Permanent
successes were mostly obtained
Methods used to arthropod vectors
1. Personal protection
•Use of Physical barriers between a vertebrate and arthropods.
– Eg Clothing can offer protection from biting insects when it is of a
thickness and texture through which insects cannot easily bite.
– Lighter colours generally attract fewer insects than darker colours.
– Boots can protect the ankles from biting insects.
• Use of chemical barriers that repel arthropods from actual biting;
•Use of arthropod toxicants that are applied directly to or with in a
vertebrate. Eg The use of impregnated mosquito nets results in the
killing of bedbugs, lice and fleas, as well as mosquitos
2. Environmental management: involves altering the
breeding sites of the vectors, for instance by filling
ponds and marshes on a permanent basis or by
repeatedly removing vegetation from ponds and canals
and cleaning premises.
3. Biological control : this is use of living organisms or
their products to control vector and pest insects.
The organisms used include viruses, bacteria, protozoa,
fungi, plants, parasitic worms, predators such as fish.
The aim is generally to kill larvae without polluting the
environment. Biological control often works best when
used in combination with environmental management.
4. Barrier zones and quarantines: an area free
from certain vectors, either naturally or as a
consequence of control programs, may need
protection from invasion.
5. Local control methods:
•through trial and error, man has established many
local ways of fighting and controlling arthropods.
•Smoke from an open fire repels insects, especially
in still air or a poorly ventilated dwelling.
•The repellent effect of smoke may be increased by
burning certain materials such as aromatic wood
containing resins or various types of plant.
•The oils of some plants, such as citronella, are
repellent when applied directly to the skin or
clothing but their protective effect is very brief.
6. Chemical control methods: Chemical insecticides act in two
ways:
•As stomach poisons:
– These are taken up by the insect in the form of bait,
– or may be applied to surfaces over which the insect (arthropod)
will walk,
– taking up material on its legs and body.
– This will then be taken into the alimentary canal when the insect
cleans itself.
•As contact poison: These may be applied to the atmosphere
through which the insect is flying, or to surfaces over which it
will walk.
The chemical
– penetrates the cuticle
– or enters the spiracles and will act depending on its ingredients
– eg may act on the nervous system by disrupting nerve impulses,
causing uncoordinated behavior followed by paralysis and death
of the insect.
Methods of arthropod control
cont..d
7. Genetic control:
• This involves manipulation of the mechanisms
of heredity.
• In some research centers sterilized male
mosquitoes are used in order for them to
compete with natural ones and thereby
decreasing the new generation of mosquitoes.
Classification of arthropods
Classification of arthropods
• Class arachinida (spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites)
– cephalothorax with six pairs of appendages: chelicerae,
pedipalps (used in sensing and feeding), and four pairs of
walking legs
– Gas exchange is by book lungs
• Class insecta (insects)
– Hexa poda, 3 main body divisions, have tracheal system for
gaseous exchange
• Class diplopoda (millipedes)
– Wormlike with a large number of walking legs (two pairs per
segment)
– Feed on decaying plant matter
• Class chilopoda (centipedes)
– Each trunk segment has one pair of walking legs
– They are Carnivorous
– Poison claws on the most anterior trunk segment are used to
paralyze prey and for defense
• Class crustacean (Crabs, lobsters, Cyclops,
shrimps, crayfish etc.)
– They have two pairs of antennae, three or more pairs of
mouthparts including mandibles, walking legs on the
thorax, appendages are present on the abdomen.
– Lost appendages can be regenerated.
– Gas exchange may take place across thin areas of the
cuticle (small forms) or by gills (large forms)
– Nitrogenous wastes are excreted by diffusion across thin
areas of the cuticle
– Salt balance of the hemolymph is regulated by a pair of
specialized antennal or maxillary glands
