PHY 102

General Physics II
(Electricity & Magnetism)
MAXWELL’S
EQUATIONS
BY

DR. S. J. ADEBIYI
INTRODUCTIO
N
The principles underlying the propagation of
electromagnetic waves are based on the
relationship between electricity and magnetism.

Maxwell’s equations are a set of four

fundamental equations that describe how
electric and magnetic fields interact and
propagate through space.
Therefore, the basic laws of Electricity and
Magnetism are summarized as follows:
2
GAUSS’S LAW
Gauss’s Law for Electricity (Maxwell’s First
Equation):
Gauss’s law states that the electric flux through a
closed surface is proportional to the charge
enclosed by that surface.

3
 Φ 𝐸 =∯ 𝐸 .𝑑 𝐴
Where is the electric field intensity
or strength.
∯ 𝜺𝒐 𝑬 .𝑑 𝐴=∭ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
Since , where is the electric
Also, the total charge Q can be displacement

∯ 𝑫.𝒅 𝑨=∭ 𝝆𝒅𝑽

written in terms of the volume
charge density (quantity of charge

𝑄=∭ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉
per unit volume.

Therefore, Maxwell’s first

equation can be written as:
𝝆
∯ 𝑬 .𝒅 𝑨=∭ 𝜺 𝒅𝑽 4
𝒐
Gauss’s Law for Magnetism (Maxwell’s Second
Equation):
The second law describes the absence of isolated
magnetic charges and it states that the total
magnetic flux through any closed surface is
always zero i.e. magnetic monopole does not
exist.

∯ 𝑩.𝒅 𝑨=𝟎
Where is the magnetic flux density.

Since , where is the Magnetic field strength

∯ 𝑯.𝒅 𝑨=𝟎 5
FARADAY’S LAW (Maxwell’s Third
Equation)
This equation describes how a changing magnetic field
induces an electromotive force (emf) in a closed loop of
wire. It links changing magnetic fields to the generation
of electric fields.
𝑑 Φ𝑚 Where is the electric field intensity or
𝑒=− strength. Therefore,
𝑑𝑡
The magnetic flux can be
𝒅
expressed as:
∮ 𝑬 .𝒅𝒍=− 𝒅𝒕 ∯ 𝑩. 𝒅 𝑨
𝛷𝑚=∯ 𝐵.𝑑 𝐴
The emf can be expressed as:

𝑒=∮ 𝐸.𝑑𝑙 6
AMPERE’S
LAW
Ampere discovered that a magnetic field is produced by electric
fields. The equation relates the magnetic field around a closed
loop to the current passing through the loop. It describes the
relationship between electric currents and magnetic fields.

∮ 𝐵.𝑑𝑙=𝜇 𝐼
𝐼=∯ 𝐽 𝐶 .𝑑 𝐴
Where is the current density.
Therefore, the Ampere’s law can be
state as:

∮ 𝑩.𝒅𝒍=𝝁∯ 𝑱.𝒅 𝑨 7
Modified Ampere’s law (Maxwell’s Fourth Equation)
Maxwell introduced the new concept of displacement
current. The displacement current is a quantity
appearing in Ampere’s law (now called the modified
Ampere’s law) and is the rate of change of electric
displace current field.
According to Ampere, the From Ampere’s equation:
displacement current is
defined as:
𝐽 𝐷 =𝜀
𝑑Φ𝐸
𝑑𝑡
∮ 𝐵.𝑑𝑙=𝜇∯ 𝐽 𝐶 .𝑑 𝐴
Therefore, the modified Ampere’s equation
Then the Ampere can be state as:
equation needs to be
modified to the
continuity equation for
( 𝑑Φ 𝐸
∮ 𝐵 .𝑑𝑙=𝜇 ∯ 𝐽 𝐶 .𝑑 𝐴+𝜀 𝑑𝑡 )
8
Note:

Where is the conductivity of the medium

9
But
Φ𝐸 =∯ 𝐸.𝑑 𝐴
( 𝑑
∮ 𝐵.𝑑𝑙=𝜇 ∯ 𝐽 𝐶 .𝑑 𝐴+𝜀 𝑑𝑡 ∯ 𝐸.𝑑 𝐴 )
( 𝑑
∮ 𝐵.𝑑𝑙=𝜇 ∯ 𝐽 𝐶 .𝑑 𝐴+ 𝑑𝑡 ∯ 𝐷.𝑑 𝐴 )
Where D is the displacement electric
fields.

∮ 𝑩 . 𝒅𝒍=𝝁∬ ( 𝑱 𝑪+
𝒅𝑫
𝒅𝒕 )
. 𝒅𝑨

∮ 𝑩.𝒅𝒍=𝝁∬ ( 𝑱𝑪 + 𝑱 𝑫 ) .𝒅𝑨 10
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS – INTEGRAL
FORM
𝝆
∯ 𝑬 .𝒅 𝑨=∭ 𝜺 𝒅𝑽 Gauss’s Law for Electricity
𝒐

∯ 𝑩.𝒅 𝑨=𝟎 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

𝒅
∮ 𝑬 .𝒅𝒍=− 𝒅𝒕 ∯ 𝑩. 𝒅 𝑨 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
Induction

∮ 𝑩 . 𝒅𝒍=𝝁∬ ( 𝑱 𝑪+
𝒅𝑫
𝒅𝒕 )
. 𝒅𝑨 Modified Ampere’s
Law 11
Divergence’s Theorem:
It is also known as Gauss's Theorem. It is a fundamental result in
vector calculus that relates the flow of a vector field through a
closed surface to the behavior of the vector field inside the
surface. The theorem simply states:

Stokes’ Theorem:
∭ 𝜵.𝑭𝒅𝑽=∯ 𝑭 .𝒅𝑨
is another fundamental result in vector calculus and can be used to
line integral around a closed curve into a surface integral over the
surface bounded by the curve. It can be stated as:

∮ 𝑭 .𝒅𝒍=∬ (𝜵×𝑭 ) .𝒅𝑨 12

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS – DIFFERENTIAL OR POINT
FORM
Using Divergence’s and Stoke Theorems, the Integral form of Maxwell’s
Equations can be converted to Differential or Point form.
𝝆
𝛁 . 𝑬=
𝜺𝒐
OR 𝛁 . 𝑫=𝝆 Gauss’s Law for
Electricity

𝛁 . 𝑯 =𝟎 OR 𝛁 . 𝑩=𝟎 Gauss’s Law for

Magnetism

𝝏𝑩 𝝏𝑯
𝛁 × 𝑬 =− OR 𝛁 × 𝑬 =− 𝝁 Faraday’s Law of
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 Electromagnetic
Induction

𝛁 × 𝑯= 𝑱 +𝜺
𝝏𝑬
𝝏𝒕
OR
(
𝛁 × 𝑩=𝝁 𝑱 + 𝜺
𝝏𝑬
)
Modified Ampere’s
𝝏𝒕 Law 13
 MAXWELL’S
EQUATIONS IN
DIFFERENT MEDIA

14
SOURCE-FREE
MEDIUM
a region of space where there are no free electric charges or
currents e.g. vacuum or free space. This means that within this
medium, the volume charge density ρ and the current density J
are both zero.
In the context of
electromagnetism, a vacuum
𝛁 . 𝑬 =𝟎 OR 𝛁 . 𝑫=𝟎 or free space refers to a
region of space devoid of

𝛁 . 𝑯 =𝟎 OR 𝛁 . 𝑩=𝟎 matter, including air, atoms,

and charged particles. In such
𝝏𝑩 𝝏𝑯 a region, electromagnetic
𝛁 × 𝑬 =− OR 𝛁 × 𝑬 =− 𝝁 fields can propagate without
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 the influence of material
For free Space:
𝝏𝑬 𝝏𝑬 media.
𝛁 × 𝑯 =𝜺 OR 𝛁 × 𝑩=𝝁𝜺 Permittivity
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 Permeability 15
STATIC FIELDS

A static field is a field that does not change with time. In the context of
electromagnetism, there are two main types of static fields: Electrostatic Field
and Magnetostatic Field. In Maxwell’s equations, the time derivatives set to zero
𝝆
𝛁 . 𝑬=
𝜺𝒐
OR 𝛁 . 𝑫=𝝆
𝛁 . 𝑯 =𝟎 OR 𝛁 . 𝑩=𝟎
𝛁 × 𝑬 =𝟎 OR
𝛁 × 𝑬 =𝟎

𝛁 ×𝑯= 𝑱 OR 𝛁 × 𝑩=𝝁 𝑱
CONDUCTIND AND NON CONDUCTING MEDIA

In a conducting medium, In a non-conducting medium,

Maxwell's equations are modified Maxwell's equations are simplified
to include the effects of electrical because the current density J due
conductivity i.e. to free charges is zero.

𝝆 𝛁 . 𝑫=𝝆 𝝆
𝛁 . 𝑬=
𝜺𝒐 OR 𝛁 . 𝑬=
𝜺𝒐
OR 𝛁 . 𝑫=𝝆

𝛁 . 𝑯 =𝟎 OR 𝛁 . 𝑩=𝟎 𝛁 . 𝑯 =𝟎 OR 𝛁 . 𝑩=𝟎
𝝏𝑯 𝝏𝑩 𝝏𝑯
𝝏𝑩 𝛁 × 𝑬 =− 𝝁 𝛁 × 𝑬 =− 𝛁 × 𝑬 =− 𝝁
𝛁 × 𝑬 =− OR 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 OR 𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝒕

( )
𝝏𝑬 𝝏 𝑬 𝛁 × 𝑯 =𝜺 𝝏 𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝛁 × 𝑯= 𝑱 +𝜺 OR 𝛁 × 𝑩=𝝁 𝑱 + 𝜺 OR 𝛁 × 𝑩=𝝁𝜺
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
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