Cooling and crystallization of molten rock material
• Rocks resulting from volcanic eruption are widespread but
present only a small portion of the total rocks formed.
• Most magma cools below the Earth’s surface and forms
bodies of rocks known as PLUTONS.
Some types of magmas are involved both activity but some are
involved/mobile than others and therefore more commonly reach
to the surface
Plutons typically underlie areas of extensive volcanism and are the
sources of everlying lavas and fragmental materials EJECTED during
explosive eruptions.
Volcanism and plutonism occurs at or near plate boundaries
Magma: molten rock material below the Earth’s surface.
Magma tends to move upward towards the surface since it
is less dense and hot then the solid rock that it was drived.
Magma is erupted onto to the surface as lava flows and
forcefully ejected into atmosphere as particles called
pyroclastic materials.
Pyro - fire
Klastos - broken
İgnis – fire (latin)
When Magma cools and crystallizes either
• At the Earth’s surface (volcanic/extrusive igneous
rocks)
• Below the Earth’s surface (intrusive/plutonic igneous
rocks)
When Pyroclastic materials (volcanic ash,
volcanic fragments, ...) become consolidated,
called pyroclastic rocks.
When crustal rocks MELT and form MAGMA, the
magma is typically SILICA-RICH and also contains
considerable amount of Al, Ca, Na, Fe, Mg and K.
NOT ALL MAGMAS originate by melting of crustal
rocks, however some are derived from UPPER
MANTLE rocks (that are composed of ferromagnesian
minerals/silicates: THUS, magma will be less in silica
but rich in Fe and Mg).
Depending on the silica content, magma are
distinguished into three:
• Felsic (> 65% SiO2): considerable amount of Na, K &
Al but little Mg, Fe & Ca
• Intermediate (53-65% SiO2): something in between
• Mafic (basaltic) (45-53% SiO2): silica poor, more Ca,
Mg & Fe but less Na, K and,
• Ultramafic (< 45% SiO2)
No direct measurement.
Erupting lavas: 1000 C to 1200 C.
1350 C have also been recorded.
Resistance to flow.
Temperature and Composition (mainly silica content) – controlling
factor. Plus volatile content.
Hot lava flows more readily than cooled lava (stiff).
Mafic lavas tend to have less viscosity;
• Felsic (> 65% SiO ): numerous SiO [form thick, slow-moving
2 4
flows – High viscous]
• Mafic (basaltic) (45-53% SiO ): fewer SiO [form thin flows, less
2 4
viscous]
Form as magma cools and crystallizes;
• Rocks formed inside Earth are called plutonic or
intrusive rocks.
• Rocks formed on the surface are called volcanic or
extrusive rocks.
Crystallization of
magma
• Crystal size is
determined by the
rate of cooling;
Slow rate forms large
crystals.
Fast rate forms
microscopic crystals.
Very fast rate forms
glass.
Crystal size is determined by the rate of cooling;
• Rapid Cooling:
Aggregate of many small crystals: fine-grained texture:
(Aphanitic texture).
• Slow Cooling:
Large crystals to form: coarse-grained texture:
(Phanaritic texture).
• Very Fast Cooling:
Volcanic glass to form.
Porphyritic (two crystal sizes) – two rates of cooling;
(Porphyritic texture)
Classification is based on the rock's texture and mineral constituents
Texture
*Size and arrangement of crystals.
*Types
• Fine-grained – fast rate of cooling
• Coarse-grained – slow rate of cooling
• Porphyritic (two crystal sizes) – two rates of cooling (The rock
is called PORPHYRY)
• Pheneocrsysts
• Groundmass/matrix
• Glassy – very fast rate of cooling.
• Vesiculer (Vesicle: small holes or cavities formed by the
trapping of water vapor or other gases during the cooling of
magma)
• Amygdoloidal – if vesicules are filled with secondary minerals
• Pyroclastic or fragmental – explosive volcanic activity.
Classification
is based on the rock's texture
and mineral constituents.
• Mineral composition
Explained by Bowen's reaction series which
shows the order of mineral crystallization (the sequence
in which minerals to crystallize)
• Mineral composition
Influenced by;
Crystall settling in the magma,
Assimilation,
Magma mixing
Crystal Settling
Crystal Settling: Differentiation
Crystal Settling
Assimilation
Country rock
Inclusions
Magma mixing
Igneous rocks are mixtures of minerals.
Melting occurs over a range of temperatures.
Produces a magma with a higher silica content than the
original rock.
Composed almost entirely of light-colored silicates -
quartz and feldspar,
Also referred to as felsic: feldspar and silica (quartz) rich,
High silica content (about 70 percent).
Common rock is granite.
eg. Basaltic rocks
Contain substantial dark silicate minerals and calcium-
rich plagioclase feldspar.
Also referred to as mafic: magnesium and ferrum (iron).
Common rock is basalt.
Andesitic (or intermediate)
Ultramafic
Most magma is emplaced at depth.
An underground igneous body is called a
pluton.
Plutons are classified according to
• Geometry (3-D shape)
Tabular (sheetlike)
Massive
• Orientation with respect to the host (surrounding) rock :
relationship to the country rock.
Discordant – cuts across existing structures.
Concordant – parallel to features such as sedimentary strata.
Orientation with respect to the host (surrounding) rock
• Dike: a tabular, discordant pluton
• Sill: a tabular, concordant pluton
• Laccolith: Similar to a sill. Lens shaped mass.
Arches overlying strata upward
•
Dike: Disconcordant magma when magma is injected the country rock.
Dike
Dike
Sill: Concordant magma when magma is injected the country rock.
Batholith
Largest intrusive body.
Often occur in groups Surface exposure 100+ square
kilometers (smaller bodies are termed stocks).
Frequently form the cores of mountains.
Madagascar, Intrusive body
Kenya, Intrusive body
Summary:
Ultramafic Rocks (extreme mafic end in intrusives)
Dunite – Olivine
Peridotite – olivine + pyroxene + plagioclase
Pyroxenite – Pyroxene
Pegmatite
Coarsely crystaline IR, containing minerals measuring at least 1 cm
across or even larger.
It referes to a texture: most of them are essentially composed of qtz, K-
felds, Na-plg that usually corresponds to composition of a granite.
Factors that influence the generation of magma from solid rock.
• Role of heat
Earth’s natural temperature increases with depth (geothermal gradient) is not sufficient to melt
rock at the lower crust and upper mantle.
Additional heat is generated by
• Friction in subduction zones.
• Crustal rocks heated during subduction.
• Rising, hot mantle rocks.
• Role of pressure
Increase in confining pressure causes an increase in melting temperature.
Drop in confining pressure can cause decompression melting.
• Lowers the melting temperature.
• Occurs when rock ascends.
• Role of volatiles
Primarily water.
Cause rock to melt at a lower temperature.
Play an important role in subducting ocean plates.
