TEACHING

METHODOLOGY

Welcome
 OBJECTIVES
BROAD OBJECTIVE
Prepare students to become
effective teachers
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Describe characteristics,
principles, process and theories of
Learning
Explain curriculum development in
terms of its process and component
.
Discuss various traditional and
modern teaching methods
Select and apply appropriate
teaching aids
Evaluate learners using
appropriate student performance
assessment method
Microteaching presentation by all
students
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 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Learning- a process of acquiring new
habits, knowledge and skills
• Enables students to do something
that they could not do before
A process by which behavior or
potentiality of a behavior is modified
/changed as a result of experience
It is the capacity to behave in a
certain version which results from
practice or other forms of
experiences
Teaching-
.
• Interaction between a teacher and
student under teachers
responsibility in order to bring out
expected changes in student
behavior
The teacher impart (transmit,
instruct/share) knowledge and
skills to the learner

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 .
Education-
• Education is a Latin word
educatio which is derived from
the verb word educare.
• It is used to refer to the process
of growing up mentally and
physically.
• The process of acquiring and
developing desired knowledge,
skills and attitude (Oluoch, 1982)
.Educational theory-
• The field of academic study dealing
with educational principles and
practice

A theory is a scientifically acceptable

principle offered to explain a
phenomena

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Educational psychology: is the
scientific study of human
behavior and mental processes
within a learning set up

Learner is the focal point

 learners nature,
 the learning process
 how learning environment impacts
on the learner and learning process
Investigates growth and
development patterns
Seeks to understand the needs,
motives and behavior signs of the
learner
investigates environmental forces
that may influence the learners
behavior
Establishes how learners develop
various skills, knowledge and attitudes
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EDUCATION
Life long process from birth to
death
Deepens and widens as one grows
Includes all experiences of growth
and development
Students have to engage in
learning activities
Learning activities make up the
curriculum
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 Learning occurs in two ways
.
a)Association-
Associating with spoken words,
objects or persons.
There is association between two
stimuli or between a stimuli and a
response
Classical and operant conditioning are
the two forms of associative learning
There is connection between sensory
experience and neutral impulses
b) Cognitive behaviour/ learning
.Cognitive learning involves learning the
relationship between two stimuli
The learner acquires new behavior and
knowledge simply by observing a model
The main focus of study is learning by
observation
Learning may not occur immediately
The learner sets goals and objectives
and directs all the efforts towards
achieving them and are motivated to
achieve those goals
 Finally the learner self regulates
. their learning and behavior
The learner forms cognitive
structure in their memory which is
perceived and organized information
It is relatively permanent due to
repeated exposure
Knowledge is acquired and
understood through thoughts,
experiences and senses
 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
.PRINCIPLES-
Rules, laws or facts about something
which results from repeated experiences
The students learn using the following principles
1. Relevance -Students learn what is
relevant and useful.
2. Systematic- Students learn when the
material is presented in a logical,
sequential order.
3. Activity -Students learn when they are
actively involved
.4. Feedback and evaluation-
• Students learn when they receive
feedback on their performance that
forms part of the reinforcement
5. Clarity of objectives-
• To be effective, learning needs an aim
i.e what people are trying to learn
needs to be clearly spelt out.

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. 6. Motivation-
• involves increasing willingness to
learn
7. Practice and repetition-
• Learning evolves from
competence through repetition.
8. Individualization-
• rate of learning varies with
individual student
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
. LEARNING

a) Produces a behavior change in

the learner.
b) Leads to change that is
gradual, adaptable and selective
c) Results from repetitive
practice and experience.
d) Is not directly observable, it is
abstract.
 PRINCIPLES OF ADULT
LEARNING (Andragogy)
Adults learns best when the topic is of
immediate value to them, in their job or
personal life
Active participation. They should be
involved in planning and evaluation of
the instruction
Cumulative learning allows adult
teaching to progress from known to
unknown
Opportunity to practice new skills i.e
problem centred activities
. Individual pace of teaching for each
andragogic learner
Learning for understanding and
application of knowledge
Progression in learning
Open minded, reflective and critical
learning

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 LEARNING PROCESS
It reflects the stages and sequences of
learning
1. Attention-
stage of preparation, students have to be
attentive (alert, awake n watchful) in order
to understand and follow the content
2. Perception-
involves connection to the senses.
Information is registered to the mind so that
the meaning is established.
Involves complex interrelation of
information from previous learning and
3. Acquisition-
. students acquire new capability of
operating something
Involves identifying how ways and means
are mastered in responding to a situation
4. Retention-
a student is able to remember what they
have learnt in class
short term retention-for immediate use.
Information is held here for 20s to 1 min

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Long term retention-
.

• beyond immediate functional use,

which can last for long.
• Can be improved by repeating to
yourself, taking notes and studying the
information again
5. Transfer-
Highest and most psychologically
complex level of learning.
Student is required to put into
appropriate use, facts, concepts and
skills that they are able to recal
.
Negative transfer- student unable
to transfer learning

Positive transfer- student able to

transfer/apply learning

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THEORIES OF LEARNING
Education theory is a field of
academic study dealing with
educational principles and practices
A theory is scientifically acceptable
principle offered to explain a
phenomenon
CLASSIFICATION
a)Stimulus - Response Theories
also referred to as
behaviourist/ associationist
theories
b) Cognitive Theories
c) Humanistic Theories

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1. Stimulus - Response
Theories
It has 3 assumptions
Learning is manifested by a change in
behaviour
The environment shapes behaviour
The principle of continuity and reinforcement.
Continuity is how close the event are for an
association
According to the theory, learning occur due to
conditioning
A) Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov – (1849 – 1936)
He was a physiologist who on his
work on digestive secretions observed
through experimentation that
salivation relied upon two kinds of
stimulation.
The first kind of salivation was
unlearned and relied on introduction
of food into the mouth.
The second type of salivation occurred
when the animal caught sight of food.
.

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 He later observed that dogs could salivate
. immediately he entered his laboratory.

This trigged him to assess if salivation would

be triggered by other stimuli by pairing a
tone of tuning fork with delivery of food

This was done for a number of occasions and

eventually the dogs salivated after the tone
before food entered the mouth.
In the above case, the food is the
unconditioned stimulus and salivation due to
introduction of food the unconditioned
response.
 The sound of tuning fork is the conditioned
. (learned) stimulus and the salivation due to
it’s sound the conditioned response.
Other terms described in this theory
include:

Extinction –
• If the conditioned stimulus is presented a
number of times without being followed by
the unconditioned stimulus, then the
conditioned response will gradually
weaken and become extinct
 •Generalization - If a musical tone of
.
different pitch is used instead of the usual
one, the conditioned response will generalize
to include the new stimulus, provided that it
differs only slightly from the original.
Discrimination - If the experimenter
presents stimuli in the form of musical notes
of varying pitch, but only presents one of
these notes with the unconditioned stimulus,
then the animal will learn to discriminate
between the notes.
 Spontaneous Recovery - A conditioned
.
response which has become extinct may often
exhibit spontaneous recovery without further
training.
It is also easier to condition an animal to
the original response than it was to condition
it in the first instance.
Higher order conditioning it is where a
previous neutral stimuli comes to elicit a
conditioned response as a result of being
paired with conditioned stimuli that already
elicit a conditioned response
.
B.F. Skinner –
.
Operant Conditioning/Instrumental
conditioning
A form of learning during which an
individual modifies the occurrence and the
form of his or her own behavior due to the
consequences of the behavior.
It deals with modification of voluntary
behavior
It operates in the environment and is
maintained by its consequences
The behavior is instrumental to the events
There are four principles used in full theory:
 REINFORCEMENTS
. a) Positive reinforcement: adding of
appetitive stimulus to increase a
certain behavior or response.eg a
father give candy to his daughter
when she picks up her toy.
b) Negative reinforcement: taking
away of an aversive stimulus to
increase a certain behavior or
response e .g turning off distractive
music when trying to work. Noxious
stimulus is removed
.
 PUNISHMENTS
.a)positive punishment: involves adding an
aversive stimulus to decrease a certain
behavior or response .e g a mother yells at a
child trying to cross the street
• If the child stops crossing the road then
yelling becomes +ve punishment.
b) Negative punishment (omission
training): This is taking away the
appetitive stimulus to decrease a certain
behavior
• .eg a teenager comes home late. Parents
takes away her phone for two days .
.• If the frequency of coming home late
decreases, removal of cell phone
becomes negative punishment.

The limitations of punishment

It only suppress the existing behavior
It cannot establish new desired
behaviors

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 Skinner considers reinforcement as the main
. factor in learning.
He believes that human behaviour is largely
reinforced not by primary reinforcers e.g.
food or drink, but by secondary
reinforcers e.g. money and prestige

EXTINCTION- Punishment, when applied

immediately following the negative behavior
can be effective, but results in extinction
when it is not applied consistently
Criticisms of Behaviourists.
They make man merely a puppet. i.e. a passive
recipient of external factors
Ethics of manipulation of behaviour are often
questioned

Application of reinforcement may lead to a situation

Where the learner will only consider doing
something if there is a reward.

Learning does not only occur after reinforcement.

Some people see them as having application to

animal learning but not to the complex learning of
humans
Application to Nurse
Education
Reinforcement can be used as
feedback on learner performance.
Knowledge of success is said to act
as a reinforcer of behaviour.
There is then need to give immediate
feedback on performance
The use of Praise is also reinforcing
.
Programmed learning/instruction -
material is presented in an orderly,
logical succession of small steps.
Each step requires a learner to make
a response and if this is correct she is
said to receive reinforcement from
providing such a response

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 THORNDIKE-
.•
Learning is more meaningful when
objective or outcome is clearly stated
R. M. GAGNE
Categorized learning into different
domains so that the different conditions
for learning and assessment could be
planned accordingly.
The domains identified are motor skills,
verbal information, intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies and attitudes.
WATSON-
• recommended active participation or
learning by practice
2. COGNITIVE THEORIES/GESTALT
THEORY
 As the name implies they are concerned
with thinking, perception and other
intellectual functioning of an organism.
 It explains learning in terms of information
processing pattern in our minds and
meaningful learning.
 Information processing denotes how we
take in information and retrieve it when
needed
 They focus on how students attend to,
recognise, transform and retrieve
It is based on 2 assumptions
•The memory system is an active
organizer/processor of information
•Prior knowledge is important in learning
This theory argues that we pay attention to what
is important and interesting
Information that is important will be stored
temporarily in the short term /working memory
Any useful information in our short term
memory is transferred to the long term memory
any information that is not stored in the long
term memory will is forgorten
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we process information that is organized
and connected to what we already know
Learning is purely an individual activity
and Practise enhances retention
If learning takes place within a certain
context, it is easier to remember within
the same context than in a new context
Use of strategies mnemonics enhances
retention

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.B. S Bloom
Benjamin Samuel Bloom Believed that
there are levels of learning that a learner
must go through,
starting from the basic existing
knowledge to the highest level possible
(from simple to complex)
Learning skills involves a certain amount
of
knowledge and appropriate attitudes for
proper performance
He proposed three domain of learning as
follows:-
.1. Affective domain that is concerned
with attitudes, emotions/feelings
2.Cognitive domain (thinking) that is
concerned with knowledge
3.Psychomotor domain that is
concerned with muscular and mental
activities.
Within each domain there is hierarchy of
learning objectives, starting from basic
type of learning to the more complex
one.
 JEROME BRUNNER
.
Recommended discovery learning.
Teacher provides problems for the
learners to work out answers on
their own.
In the setting a teacher is a
manager of resources rather than
instructor.
By own discovery, one acquires
information that is readily viable in
problem solving
.D.P. ASUBEL
Suggested that learning should
start from known to unknown and
simple to complex.
A teacher start by introducing
material at a fairly general level
and making explicit the relevance
of the material to the task to be
learned.

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Application Of Cognitive Theories
As a teacher, one should recognize the
variation in learns ability to learn
A teacher should vary the stimuli when
teaching
A teacher should avoid disruption during
learning process.
The lesson should be interesting and
motivating
Should relate the material being taught to
what the students know
Engage students in active rehearsal with
what is learnt through practice and review
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3. Humanistic orientation
This orientation is heavily based on the
work of Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow
The model states that the goal of
learning is growth
The approach believes that learning is
a personal act to fulfill one’s
potential
They perceive learning as value
driven.
. Carl Rogers said that learning is not
a one dimensional process, its multi
dimensional.
In that learning combines both the
logical and intuitive, the intellect and
the feelings.
We learn as a whole.
i.e learning does not only involve the
person’s cognitions and their
interaction with their environment, it
also involves their
personal/subjective experiences
Carl Rogers
. Rogers provided a learner-centered
view of learning.

His main propositions were that:

All humans have a natural potential
and desire to learn.
Learning occurs when the student
perceives relevance related to their
own purposes.
Significant learning is acquired
through doing
. Learning is more effective when the
learner is responsible for:
choosing their direction,

discovering resources and

formulating problems.

Most learning is self initiated and

involves the whole person, including
their feelings as well as intellect

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.
Self evaluation is a basic skill that is
necessary for effective mature learning.
Learners should retain a continuing
openness to change.
Learning occurs when external threats
are eliminated
Rogers’ approach significantly
contributed to adult learning
principles
ct
Abraham Maslow
According to Maslow, education
should help students to look within
themselves, and from this self
knowledge, develop a set of values
which will guide them in their
working life.
Maslow emphasizes the importance
of learning for self enhancement
rather than simply for utility.
ct
This view is relevant to adult learners
who decide to continue with their
education out of interest, rather than
in order to gain extra degrees or
qualifications.
.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
By ALBERT BANDURA
Stated that learning is a social process also
called (observational Learning)
People learn from each other through
observation, imitation or modelling
He agrees with the behaviourist learning
theories of classical conditioning and
operant conditioning. But he adds two
important ideas:
1. Mediating processes occur between
stimuli & responses.
2. Behavior is learned from the environment
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through the process of observational learning

• Children observe the people around them
behaving in various ways. This is illustrated
during the famous Bobo doll experiment
(Bandura, 1961).
• Individuals that are observed are called
models. E.g. parents, TV characters,
friends and teachers
• Models provide examples of behavior to
observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and
feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.
• Children pay attention to the models and
encode their behavior. Later, they imitate
(copy) the behavior they have observed.
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The people around the child responds to the
imitated behavior with either reinforcement
or punishment. If a learner imitates a
model’s behavior and the consequences are
rewarding, the learner is likely to continue
the behavior.
Vicarious reinforcement. A learner takes
into account what happens others when
deciding whether or not to copy someone’s
actions. A person learns by observing the
consequences of another person’s (models)
behavior, e.g, a younger sister observing an
older sister being rewarded for a particular
behavior is more likely to repeat that
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 Identification occurs with another person (the
model) and involves taking on (or adopting)
observed behaviors, values, beliefs and
attitudes of the person with whom you are
identifying.
The term identification as used in Social
Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian’s
identification in Oedipus complex.
They both involve internalizing or adopting
another person’s behavior. However, during the
Oedipus complex, the child can only identify
with the same sex parent, whereas with Social
Learning Theory the person (child or adult) can
potentially identify with any other person.
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SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between
traditional learning theory (behaviorism) and
the cognitive approach.
It focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are
involved in learning.
Bandura believes that humans are active
information processors and think about the
relationship between their behavior and its
consequences. Observational learning could not
occur unless cognitive processes were at work.
These mental factors mediate (intervene) in the
learning process to determine whether a new
response is acquired.
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Therefore, individuals do not
automatically observe the behavior of a
model and imitate it.
There is some thought prior to imitation,
and this consideration is called
mediational processes.
This occurs between observing the
behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or
not (response)

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CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY
.
(BY BARLETT 1932)
•It urges that learners construct their own
reality and at least interprets it based
upon their previous experiences.
•An individuals knowledge is a function of
prior experiences, mental structures and
believes that are used to interpret
objectives and events
•It views learning as a process in which
the learner actively construct or builds
new ideas or concept based upon current
and past knowledge
• It entails personal effort whereby
internalized concepts, rules, and general
principles are consistely applied in a
practical real world context.
Assumption
-Knowledge is constructed from experience
-Learning is personal interpretation of the
world
-Learning is an active process in which
meaning is derived on the basis of experience
-Conceptual growth comes from the
negotiation of meaning, the sharing of
multiple perspectives and changing of our
internal representation through collaborative
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learning
• Advocates that learning should be
situated in realistic setting, testing
should be integrated with the task
and not a separate entity
• It argues that knowledge is
constructed when individual
engage socially in task and
activities about sharing problems
or tasks.
• It promotes free exploration of
student’s within a given framework
and teacher act as just a
facillitator
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Other theories
Adult learning
Adult require active participation in learning
and they bring much knowledge from past
experiences
Action learning it attempts to link the world
of learning with the world of action through
a reflective process within small groups
Experimental learning
It is based on the premise that reflection
helps us to correct our mistakes. Learing
occur through concrete experiences,
observation and reflection
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It proposes that there are difference learning
styles
Activists- learners who enjoy the experience itself
Reflector-enjoy reflecting
Theorists-enjoys making connections and
abstracting ideas from experiences
Pragmatist- learners who enjoy the planning
stage
Holistic Theory
The individual personality consists of many
elements specifically the intellectual, emotions,
body impulses intuition and imagination
These elements require activation if learning is to
be more effective
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Facilitation theory
It argues that learning will occur by the
educator acting as a facilitator.
A facilitator establishes an atmosphere in
which learners are comfortable to consider
new ideas and not threatened by external
factors.
Characteristics of a facilitator teachers
Able to listen to learners
Inclined to pay as much attention to their
relationship with learners
Accept feedback
Less protective of their constract and believes
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FACTORS AFFECTING
LEARNING
Intelligence of the learner
Subject matter
Significance placed by the learner on the
subject
Method used for learning
Environment around when learning is taking
place
Clear objectives on what is to learnt
Communication methods used
. Careful guidance through the learning process
Recall of the previous knowledge related to
the new material
Learners attention
Motivation of the learner
Active involvement of the learner
Feedback to the learner on the growth made
in the learning process
EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES
An objective is a statement
describing an instructional outcome
Clearly written objective should
enable any competent teacher to help
student gain knowledge and skill.
The best statement is one that is
specific in meaning and not open to
ambiguous interpretation
 .
ELEMENTS OF AN OBJECTIVE
1. AUDIENCE –
They should be stated in terms of what the
learner (audience) will be able to do as a
result of instruction
2. ACT OR PERFOMANCE OR BEHAVIOR
What do you want them to do? It should
demonstrate learner performance;
observable, measurable or a real world skill
It is a description of the task to be done
expressed by active verb
Action verbs must be used to state the performance e.g.
Write, describe, compare, contrast etc
.3. CONDITIONS
Under what parameters will the
learners demonstrate the skill being
taught?
Be sure to include equipment, tools,
aids or
references, special conditions under
which the learner will perform
It includes data limitation and
restriction.
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 . CRITERION (standard)
4.
It is description of acceptable
level/degree/quality of performance
expected from a student
It describes how well the learner must
perform to be considered successful. Eg
Speed, Time limit, range of accuracy,
proportion of correct responses,
qualitative standards etc

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5. Time:
.It’s the period within which you want the learner to
demonstrate the behavior. E.g. at the end of 15
minutes.
-By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able
to identify correctly (all five components) of
instructional objective without referring to the
notes
-By the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to
correctly calculate the degree of burns using the
rule of nine without referring to the notes
-By the end of the lesson the singer should be able to
sing a pentatonic scale ascending and descending
without making a mistake.
CHARACTERISTIC/QUALITIES OF
. OBJECTIVES
Specific- no argument or dispute about
the meaning
Measurable- quantified in an objective
way
Attainable/Achievable - can be
performed
Realistic/feasible - Sensible and
practical idea of what can be achieved
or expected.
Time bound- achieved within the
stipulated time
 Benefits of objectives
• They inform students what is required of
them
So that they can better prepare for the work.
• They help planning team to think in specific
term and put in sequence the subject matter
• They indicate type and extent of activities
that are required to successfully carry out
learning
• They provide basis of evaluating both
students learning and effectiveness of
instructional outcome
• Provide best means of communicating to
colleagues, parents and others on what is to
be taught
LIMITATIONS OF AN OBJECTIVE
Most relate to the lowest level of cognitive
domain which is least important.......
knowledge
Only applies to cognitive and psychomotor
domain but not in affective
They are limited in humanities and social
science which do not require sequential
cognitive organization
Narrow path of objective may hinder
unanticipated needs and outcomes
 DOMAINS OF EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES
Domain- a particular area of thought, activity or
interest esp. where one has control or influence.
(Area, department, Field or scope of knowledge)
They are grouped into three domains cognitive,
psychomotor, affective.
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
The learner is required to engage in mental or intellectual
activities. It includes objectives concerning knowledge
1. Objectives are concerned with transmission of knowledge
and intellectual skills
2. The objectives deal with recall or recognition of learnt
materials and the development of intellectual abilities and
application of concepts.
3. They vary from simple recall of materials to highly complex and
creative ways of combining and synthesizing ideas
.
B.S. Bloom developed a taxonomy of simple to higher level of cognition
as follows...BLOOM’S taxonomy
1.Knowledge:
•Deal with recall or recognition of learnt material
•Involves the recall of specifics and universals,
•The recall of methods and processes
•The recall of a pattern, structure, or setting
2. Comprehension:
Involves interpretation & restating of acquired facts.
It deals with understanding e.g. Classify, define, describe , discuss ,
explain and select.
E.G. Apply, locate, choose, solve , operate, manage
3. Application:
• .It involves application of acquired knowledge,
principles and processes in new situations
4. Analyze:
• Involves critical thinking to come up with solution,
causes and relationships
• E.G. Compare, contrast, calculate, analyze.
5. Synthesis:
• This is the ability to put together separate elements
of knowledge or principles. Ability to produce
unique communication. e.g. formulate, create,
repair, design
6. Evaluation :
• This is the ability to judge and make decisions
using the acquired knowledge
• e.g. Defend, argue, judge or predict, assess,
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.

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 2. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
It deals with Attitudinal, Emotional and Valuing
Objectives concerned with attitudes, values
and emotions, feelings. It is classified into five
levels
Receiving
Willing to give attention to an event or activity
i.e listen, accept, admit
Responding
Willing to react to an event through some form
of participation i.e agree, conform, participate
Valuing
Willing to accept an event through expression
of a positive attitude
Organizing
Considers values and selects appropriate
alternatives on their merits
Characterising by value
Act in accordance with the values.
incorperate the behaviour in the
personality
 3. PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
It may be described as skills requiring use
. coordination of skeletal muscles.
and
The recognised taxonomy include
Gross bodily movement of arms, shoulders
and legs
Finely coordinated movements- hands and
fingers, eyes and hands, feet and fingers
Non- verbal communication- facial
expression, gestures
Speech behaviour- producing and
coordinating sound as in a foreign language
TYPES OF OBJECTIVES
a) Long term/ terminal performance
objectives:
It is an objective for a given instructional entity i.e.
what the student should achieve by the end of the
course.
b) Short term Objective:
Are objectives for the sub-units of instructions.
They bridge the gap between learner’s entry behavior
and the long- term objective
c) Pre requisite objectives:
It is the knowledge the learner should have before
entering the course
 CURRICULUM
A written description of what happens in the
course.
It entails all the activities and the events,
which take place from the first event to the
very last.
The document in which all the activities,
transactions and the events of a training
programme are described.
Planned educational programme for students.
Total structure of ideas and activities
developed by an educational institution to
meet learning needs of students and to
achieve desired educational aims
 Kerr ( 1968) defines a curriculum as learning
. which is planned and guided by the school,
whether carried out in groups or individually,
inside or outside the school
 Bishop (1995) defines a curriculum as sum
total of all experiences a pupil undergoes
within or without the school to enable
students adopt a positive attitude to learning
 Shiundu and Omulando (1992) talks about
class and out of class activities carried out
under the aegis of a school in response to
societal demands
 Oluoch (1982) defines it as all that which is
planned to enable students to develop the
desired knowledge skills and attitudes
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Components /elements of the
Curriculum
A Statement of rationale/ Justification
This gives general philosophy of the
training programme and why it is
required.
Resources
An outline of the physical,
administrative and financial
requirements for the course.
It is also a description of the minimal
facilities in terms of buildings,
equipment and personnel.
 Entry Requirements
. Description of the entry requirements for the students
and methods of selection.
Educational Goals and Objectives
Describes the goals and educational objectives of the
course
Content
This is what will be covered in a course according to
the stated objectives.
Learning Experiences
Are intended to be descriptions of the
teaching and learning methods to be
employed during the educational
programme.
.Programme
Outlines a logical sequence of events.
Duration
Specification of how long each unit or learning
block should last.
Course Descriptions
Highlights the title, unit, course objectives,
course content and code for each course taught
in the programme.
Assessment-
Outlines method of continuous evaluation, final
certification, remedial activities and referral of
failed candidates
Factors Influencing the
Development of a Curriculum
There are several factors that influence
curriculum development.
 Academic Factors
They represent views of teachers who
teach the main subjects of a given discipline
.
They often borrow from their past
experiences and merge them with the
current trends of the discipline.
The new content is designed to make a
student effective practitioner in the
provision of quality health care.
  Political Factors
.• Politicians or political investors can influence
the numbers to be trained and even the level
of training.
 Social Factors –
• The needs of the society dictate to a greater
extent what student health workers should
learn
• It is designed to reflect social and cultural
needs of the local population

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  Economic Factors
.
• The cost of implementation of a curriculum
can determine the type of health worker
trained by a given country.

• In developing countries, health workers

may be trained to perform tasks which
industrialized countries would only be done
by highly specialized personnel.
PARTICIPANTS IN CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
These are the people who, in one way or
another, exert influence directly or indirectly in
determining nature of activities of the
curriculum.
They include

 Internal Participants
Include individuals from professional
associations, ministries of health and education,
boards of examinations, administrators of the
training institutions, teachers and students.
 They are directly involved in the curriculum
. and so have a greater impact on its
development.
They develop the curriculum, teach it and
evaluate the curriculum and the students
 External Participants
Although are not directly involved
in curriculum development, they are either
beneficiaries of the product, service or provide
resources to facilitate its implementation or
may liase with the institution in various ways.
This group comprises the community,
businesses, industry and non governmental
organizations.
Major Approaches to Curriculum
Development

1. Subject-centred Approach
This is carried out by subject specialists,
who determine the subdivision of content
and the methods and timing of instruction.
Each subject is a separate entity and its
nature of score is clearly defined
limitations
.
Puts subject before a student
Needs of a student are virtually ignored
Too much time is taken in acquiring
knowledge and not enough in learning
necessary skills
It is rigid and static
Book centered

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2. Integrated Approach
. This approach attempts to combine in a
meaningful way, disciplined knowledge to
impact wholesome learning for student
application
Teaching units are fused together with larger
structures
Emphasis is to provide learners with less
discrete/separate chunk of information
Helps learners to develop higher intellectual
skills which are easily transferable to
problem solving situation at work
3. Competency-based Approach
. It aims at identifying professional
competencies required and the teaching
required to achieve these competencies.
Features
Organized around function of the health
worker in a specified setting
Assumed that majority of individuals can
master required level of proficiency given
appropriate instruction and sufficient time
Setting in which health worker will be
expected to operate is extremely important
in determining level of competency
 Limitations
. Dynamic nature of jobs may require
continuing education
List of tasks to be mastered is long and
demands the duration to be prolonged
Focuses on tasks to be performed and
becomes a major problem when health
worker is exposed to situations which
require initiative and independent thinking
 TEN STEP COMPEPTENCY BASED
PROCESS OF CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
1. Community survey
Entails identification of community needs, problems
desires and demands through community survey
2.Job description
Refers to Identification of professional roles and
functions.
It includes title of the job, tasks of a health worker
and situation under which the job is done.
It is necessary because the tasks become the objective
of the course .
3. Task analysis
It is a method of looking exactly what action a health
worker must carry out in order to complete/perform
the work.
 Involves breaking down tasks into subtasks
. Determine what knowledge, attitude and
skills graduates will need to acquire to enable
them perform those tasks
Steps in task analysis
Identify the job eg Nurse
List tasks e.g drug administration etc
Select task for analysis
List action involved in doing the task eg check
the dosage, dilute the drug...............ct
• Identify knowledge, attitudes and skills
. required eg calculating dosage of a drug,
known the side effects and how to counter
act, action, indications, etc

4. Development of educational goals and

objectives on the basis of professional
functions and task analysis.
It entails stating the expected behavior of
the learner after going through a curriculum

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ct
5. Identification and selection of subject
matter or content to be learnt.
Includes theory and practicals which
students should be exposed to .
6. Identification of teaching and
learning methods.
It refers to the technique that will be
applied to deliver the content
7. Identification or selection of learning
resources.
These are materials that will facilitate
learning
8. Identification of assessment tools to
ct
determine learner performance.
i.e CATS, assignments, end of block
examinations, performance checklist,
practical assessment tools
9. Curriculum implementation.
Learners are invited to go through the
learning experience and content of the
curriculum is delivered through utilization of
available resources
10. Curriculum review and change.
It is evaluated and compared with need of
the society and where necessary changes
effected
 TEACHING
What is teaching?

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
There are several principles of teaching.
Which include
Active Learning
As a teacher, you should encourage
learners to actively participate during
teaching and learning sessions.
This may be done in many ways:
Give students activities to perform, Ask
questions, Set problems or projects, Give
Clarity
. Make your teaching as clear as possible.
You can do this by speaking audibly, writing
neatly and selecting your visual aids carefully and
appropriately to convey a meaning to the learner
Ensure Mastery
Done by continuously assessing the learners as
well as assessing them at the end of courses.
Individualization
Vary teaching methods.
This allows you to take into account the individual
differences of the learners.
Motivation
Making sure that your teaching is interesting,
relevant and rewarding to the learners.
 COMPONENTS OF TEACHING
. Stating instructional objectives
Identifying the contents to be taught
Selecting appropriate teaching methods and
techniques
Identifying suitable instructional resources
Use appropriate methods in actual
presentation
Giving tests for evaluation
Getting feedback whether the objectives set
have been met
 Characteristic Of Effective Teaching
. Being knowledgeable on theory and practice
of teaching and learning
Commanding good teaching strategies and
procedures and using them for
classroom instruction and interraction
Having disposition and skills to approach all
aspects of teaching in a reflective and problem
solving manner
Viewing learning and teaching as a lively
process and having skills of improving it
. Factors that influence choice
of a teaching method
Lesson objectives, content
Practicality i.e time, place, level
of learners and number of
learners
Resources required to deliver
the lesson
Tasks of a teacher
 Planning for Teaching
This entails
preparing learning objectives.
Put the content, arranged in a suitable sequence.
select Appropriate learning activities and
teaching.
The amount of time to be allocated to different
learning activities, assessment procedures and
teaching methods to be used.
Identification of resources needed for teaching.
Learners should be informed about the teaching
plan
Evaluation, on both teaching and learning
 Communication
.
Process of interchanging thoughts feelings
and information. It aims at establishing
commonality.
The teacher can use various methods to
ensure effective communication. The
teacher can:
Explaining to and advise the learner
Help the learners exchange ideas
Provoke the learners to think
Use varied teaching techniques
Detect whether the learners
understand and take appropriate measures
 Providing Resources
.
Adequate resources must be provided to
ensure effective teaching and learning . To
ensure that resources are available, a
teacher can:
Request all required resources in
advance.
Prepare, select or adapt educational
materials (hand outs, exercise books) for
the session.
Arrange learning experiences, example,
field visits.
Arrange for learners’ attachments and
projects
 Involve other health service personnel in
. teaching the learner.
Arrange access to materials, such as libraries,
audiovisual programmes..

 Counseling
The teacher should provide support to the learner
by
Showing the learners that they care
Listen and attempt to understand their student
Help the learner to identify their options so as to
make decisions
Provide advice and information that helps the
learner
 MOTIVATION
-Motivation is that force which energizes and
directs a behavior towards a goal. A person is
energized to satisfy a need or desire.
-A motivated person engages better in, or is
attracted towards an activity perceived as
having a potential to meet his needs and
desires
Types Of Motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation arises when students
has a interest in the subject and thus are
inspired internally. They enjoy an activity
because it is rewarding and brings
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satisfaction
2. Extrinsic motivation it depends or results
from other reward that are external. The
learner does something in order to earn a
reward or to avoid punishment.
The learner respond to a desired reinforcer
The reinforcer is either task relevant or
non-task relevant.
3. Peer motivation this student to student
motivation
4. Adult figure motivation it depicts a
student teacher relationship. The learner
tend to imitate satisfied and enthusiastic
individuals
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FACTORS AFFECTING STUDENTS
MOTIVATION
Desire for masterly of knowledge, skills
or talents
Desire to be like a teacher or to identify
with a significant adult
Desire for approval
Desire to resolve uncertainty about
peers, adults and events in the students
life
Desire to control power and status
Desire to vest hostility esp in adolescent
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and young adult

Importance of motivation
It enhances the learners interest
It creates desire to learn more
It enhances interest and enjoyment in
the learning process
It sustains learner attention during
learning session
It creates anxiety to learn

07-05-2009 BCK 121

Ways to Create and Sustaining motivation
Improving classroom environment
Checking comfort for learner
Paying attention teachers characteristics
to create favorable atmosphere eg
confidence
Using interesting learning strategies
Providing learners with opportunity for
active response
Giving the learner feedback
Minimize performance anxiety by putting
less emphasis on grades and competition
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Maintain success expectation in order
to raise aspirations
Catering for learners individual
differences by paying attention to their
entry behavior and understanding
them

07-05-2009 BCK 123

PROVIDIDNG FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCS
Done through assessment of
Files
Observation of students in class or fiels
Having formal meetings and interviews
with students
Organizing PTA meetings
Use of Questionnaire

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 TEACHING METHODS
THE TRADITIONAL TEACHING METHODS
1. LECTURE:
It is a lesson given orally by a teacher with
virtually no student participation.
It can be either formal(one way) or
informal (two way)
When used
When introducing new content
Interpreting or clarifying questions during
a lesson
Synthesizing many lessons when there are
limited text books
. When the Subject is factual, providing little
time for forming opinion
Need to arouse students interest in new
topics
Need to provide background information
When the Class is large
When the Time is limited
Review of discussion after a small
discussion
group
Concluding a lesson
 Advantages
.
It saves time
Most appropriate when introducing new
topic
Stimulates students to think
Is an alternative method when resources
are
in short supply.
Convenient when instructing a large
group
Useful in supplementation with other
teaching methods
Many ideas are presented in a short time
.
Allows clarification
Can be preserved for future use
Leads to development of listening skills
Easiest way for those beginning
learning
Presents content uniformly preventing
confusion among the learners
Auditory listeners find it appealing in
their
learning styles
 Disadvantages
.
Does not cater for individual differences
Is ineffective for changing attitude
Does not provide immediate feedback to
the
teacher
Does not allow creativity on the part of the
learner
Its one way learning process since the
student does not participate
Instructor can provide more information
than
the student can absorb
Students with other learning skills other than
auditory have hard times
Difficult to maintain student attention to the end
of the lecture
Poor retention of materials
Doesn’t lead to achievement of high cognitive
learning
Few teachers have been taught on how to
lecture effectively
Leads to “lot” learning encouraging clamming
other than understanding
How can lecture method be improved?????
2. DEMONSTRATION
Is the actual performance of an activity
in order to illustrate a principle
The students are given time to do a
return demonstration
Actual objects are used in the
demonstration, or teaching aids
.QUALITIES OF A GOOD
DEMONSTRATION:
Should be visible to all students, if
students are many, divide them into small
groups.
Objects should be as near as possible to
the real thing and preferably the real
thing (realia) should be used.
Should proceed step by step.
Teacher should explain what is being done
and why.
ADVANTAGES:
. Creates a deeper understanding of
concepts
to students
Teacher is able to carry out formative
evaluation of the psychomotor and affective
domain
Due to application of the manual skills ,
retention is high
It provides a wide field of knowledge in
limited time
Cater for individual differences
.DISADVANTAGES:
Mistakes done during demonstration
are
easily learnt
Learners may become noisy and class
control is lost
If precautions aren't hindered it can
be
dangerous
STEPS /PROCEDURES
.
Plan for the demonstration
Obtain apparatus and rehearse the
demonstration
State the objectives for the session
Demonstrate silently at normal speed
and
repeat several times to allow learners
to focus
attention on the process
Discuss safety measures to create
awareness of the inherent dangers
.
Ask learners to explain the procedure
Ask a volunteer to attempt the
demonstration while the learners spot the
mistakes
Allow each learner to attempt the
demonstration and spot the mistakes
3. ROLE PLAY:
The students are assigned specific roles
. and given responsibility to the assigned
role.
It is appropriate in higher cognitive and
affective domains.
Characteristics
Should deal with a well structured situation
Situation should not be concerned with a
personal problem
Objectives of the play should be made
explicit
Students should volunteer for various roles
Play should be assessed and analysed by
the group at the end of the session
ADVANTAGES:
. Student get opportunity to practice what
they have learnt.
Active participation of the learner.
Teacher does formative evaluation for
psychomotor, cognitive and affective
domains.
An immediate feedback
Develops a skill of problem solving as a
group
Develop ability to observe and analyse the
situation
Opportunity to explore feelings and attitude
 DISADVANTAGES:
.
Not all students will be able to play
role.
Roles played may not be real due to
lack of a real situation.
Teachers may not be able to
construct a real problem
Limited to small group
4. PROJECT
.It is an assignment given to students as an
individual or groups.
They carry out a piece of independent work
on the subject
Students prepare a written report which is
submitted to the teacher.
The duration varies depending on specific
project
ADVANTAGES:
It allows creativity.
Encourages students to be independent.
Teacher is able to do formative evaluation.
Students can work at their own pace.
 Involve more research i.e. more
. material
from different sources.
Group projects provide opportunity for
interpersonal relationships between
students
DISADVANTAGES:
Its time consuming.
Too much load on the student.
If time is insufficient, the written
report may be inadequate & students
get impression that this work is good
enough.
5. PRACTICALS
. Is learning which takes place in the clinical
area (learn in their future working areas)
ADVANTAGES:
It creates a better understanding of concepts.
Allows creativity.
Stimulates independent thought & gives room
for
change of attitude.
Competence is achieved.
Provides feedback through formative
evaluation.
Gives time for skills to be learnt.
Provides an opportunity to develop
interpersonal skills
 DISADVANTAGES:
. Is expensive-due to resources needed.
Is time consuming.
It is not an economical way of using
manpower and resources.
It takes time to carry out practical work.
It needs administrative staff for
preparation and maintenance of materials.
It requires special accommodation
arrangements for students, that is, closer
to the area where the practical will take
place.
 6. DISCUSSION
. An activity in which students under teachers
guidance exchange points of view so as to
arrive at a correct decision or conclusion.
Characteristics:
Has clearly defined goals or objectives.
There is exchange of ideas between teacher
and
student and among the student.
Topic must be specified- everyone gives
opinion
to the topic.
Teacher acts as facilitator
After discussion a conclusion is drawn.
 CONT’D.
.TYPES OF DISCUSSION:
a. Expository oriented: the teacher
presents the objectives, explains the learning
activity, demonstrates it and then invites
questions from students before he concludes
the teaching activity.
b. Inquiry oriented: teacher states the
objectives, arrange for discussion to take place
and whole activity is open-ended.
There are no specific conclusions to be reached.
The teacher is just available as a guide but not
as a leader.
It is up to the student to carry out the
discussion and conclude.
 ADVANTAGES:
. Provide room for interaction.
There is shared commitment to learning hence
difficult points are clarified.
Evaluation of points is done by the student and
the teacher.
Active participation hence greater motivation to
the learner.
Provides opportunity for the synthesis of valid
experiences.
DISADVANTAGES
Some members may dominate in-group
discussion, hindering the learning process.
Its time consuming.
As the size of groups increase the efficiency and
effectiveness of method is decreased.
7. TUTORIAL
.Is a discussion sessions between students and
teacher and shouldn’t have more than eight
students.
The teacher should talk less and encourage
students to think and learn independently.
ADVANTAGES:
Active participation of students
Provide personal contact between students and
teacher
Individual differences are catered for.
Communication of knowledge is two – way
between teacher and students.
It provides immediate feedback for both teacher
.
DISADVANTAGES
It is not an economical way of using
manpower.
It moves too slowly to cover and covers
only
limited subject matter.
Students need to do some work on the
subject before hand.
The instructor or an active student may
dominate it.
It is liable to interruptions
8. SEMINAR
Is a session headed by a teacher, a trained senior
. student or an enthusiastic student from the class,
where an assigned subject is discussed.
The subject has to be prepared beforehand and
presented by the student.
The other students will then discuss, criticize and
comment on the material presented.
The teacher should be available to be consulted by
the group.
Advantages
It promotes interpersonal relationships between
students.
Students can learn a lot from each other.
It allows for teamwork and personal flexibility.
Teachers can encourage full participation by all
ct
It provides creativity and independent
thought on the part of students.
It provides immediate feedback of
knowledge gained.
It facilitates exchange of ideas.
It trains students to work independently
in preparing papers for presentation.
It provides greater control of
communication between students and
teachers.
.Disadvantages
It is not an economical way of using
manpower unless senior students act as
supervisors and teachers are only called
in as consultants
It is too slow to cover more than a
limited amount of subject matter
It may suffer from interruptions
It cannot provide the repetition
necessary for individual needs
.9. FIELD VISIT
Learners are taken to the actual area
where activities are taking place,
for example, a factory, school, water
treatment plant so that they are able
to see and relate to what they have
learnt on the specific topic
.Advantages
It provides the actual experience. Some
things cannot be learnt in school.
Students can observe and participate in
the use of theory
Provides for creative and independent
thought on the part of the student
Provides an opportunity for developing
interpersonal relationships between
students, teachers and field staff
It can help promote competence.
Provides time for questions and
discussion.
Information comes from multiple sources.
.Disadvantages
It is not an economical way of using
manpower and resources
It creates administrative problems in
arranging programmes
It may confuse students because there
is usually a wide gap between theory
and practice
If it is not well supervised, learning
potential may be lost and it may turn
into a social event.
 10. Individual Learning
. Advantages
Students can work at their own
individual pace.
Students can learn at the time and
place of their choice.
Students can request teaching
whenever necessary.
Students can omit parts they already
know.
Teachers can prepare a standardized
body of information.
. The method can provide for creativity
and independent thought on the part of
the student.
It can help achieve the desired
competence.
It can provide immediate feedback to
the teacher.
Students’ performance does not
decline with time.
Students learn how to express
themselves clearly.
Disadvantages
. It is an uneconomical way of using
resources.
The programmed materials have to be
maintained.
It needs administrative staff.
Information usually comes from a single
source and may lead to a one way learning
process.
No teamwork and interpersonal
relationships between students.
It takes time to prepare materials for
individual learning.
It has no regard for the students’ individual
differences.
11. Simulation
Hypothetical experience
Engages the learner in an activity that
reflect real life condition
Enable learners to develop skills in
dealing with ’real life’ situations and
’problems’ in a classroom setting
There are two methods of simulation –
thesimulation game
simulators.
 a. Simulation games:
.• Are designed to provide students with
opportunity to practice and develop skill in
problem solving, decision making and
communicating
examples
• Present a recording of chest sounds for the
learner to listen to. Ask the learner to report
on what they heard.
b. Simulators
Are models such as the obstetrical phantom
that represent real life situations and allow
the learner to interact by practicing skills
relevant to the situation.
.Advantages
Can create the link between the training
situation and the real life situation.
Simulations provide a responsive, safe and
nonthreatening environment.
There is always some immediate feedback.
Simulation is a relatively cheap method and
often provides experience in a low cost model
for a high cost environment.
Simulation allows learners to make their first
serious mistakes in a simulated situation
rather than in a real one.
Excellent for psychomotor skill development
. BCK 160
. Disadvantages
Simulation techniques cannot
simulate all dimensions of a real life
situation.
The planning and development time
required for a simulation technique
may prove to be costly.
Labor intensive
MODERN/INNOVATIVE TEACHING
METHODS
They are improvement of traditional
methods
Are mainly problem based
Burden shifts to the student
A teacher is just like a facilitator
 .They include
a) Problem Based Learning (PBL).
b) Self Directed Learning (SDL).
c) Small Group Tutorial (SGT).
d) Community Based Education and Service
(CoBES).
e) Computer Aided Education (CAE).
f) Student-centred, Problem-Based, Integrated,
Community-Oriented, Electives and Systematic
(SPICES).
ASSIGNMENT: DISCUSS THE MODERN
TEACHING METHODS AND HOW THEY CAN
07-05-2009 BCK 163

BE APPLIED IN NURSING TEACHING

.
The learning skills they develop include:
Problem solving skills
Communication skills
Clinical reasoning skills
Self directed learning skills
Emotional/social support skills
Thinking skills
Team work
Continuing education skill
 CLINICAL TEACHING
It is teaching in a clinical or practical
setting similar to environment which a
learner will practice in future
Purpose
Make learner put into practise what they
have learnt
Student learns to protect her clients from
malpractice and negligence
Students learn to maintain their integrity
and professional code of ethics and
etiquette
Characteristics/role of clinical
teacher
A skilled, experienced nurse concerned
with the maintenance and
improvement of standards of patient
care.
Concerned to help a learner to develop
their potential as a nurse.
Help a learner to gain satisfaction from
caring for patients
Able to gain satisfaction from teaching,
especially individuals and small
groups.
.
Keen to create a favorable environment
for learning.
Alert to the opportunities available for
facilitating learning in the clinical
situation
A model for your learner

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LEARNING PYRAMID-
Level of retention
TEACHING
AIDS/INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA /MATERIAL.
They are materials that can be used
to make teaching and learning
process more
effective and efficient
i.e. materials that are identified,
selected, developed and used in
instruction.
Principles of Media use
Relevant
Available
Affordable
Easy to use
It should be used at the right
time
IMPORTANCE OF MEDIA IN NURSING
EDUCATION
Enhances classroom interaction.
Enhances teacher-student relationship.
Accelerates students learning.
It creates students creativity and
innovativeness
Produces a variety of learning experiences
thus appeals to all sense.
They equip the students with vital real
skills to face challenges
They provide a universal language.
They cater for individual differences
 POINTS TO CONSIDER
WHEN SELECTING MEDIA
Consider location.
Students - know their knowledge as
media
selected should increase knowledge
Consider the safety of the media
Consider methodology
Consider content taught
Objectives- any aid should help you
achieve objectives.
 LEARNING FROM THE
ENVIRONMENT
One learns more effectively if she/he
uses more than one sense.
The more senses you use, the more
effective your learning becomes. The
senses are:
Sight--visual. Touch- -tactile.
Hearing--audio.
Smell-- nasal.
Taste---taste.
A teaching aid (just like a teacher) is
meant to facilitate learning by;
• Helping to communicate information
clearly and maintain students’ interest
• Communication, and consequently
teaching is more effective when more
than one sense is used(multi-sensory).
• This improves retention(ability to
remember)
• Making the content easier understood
 TYPES 0F TEACHING AIDS
There are two kinds of teaching aids as follows:
1. Projected aids
2. Non projected aids
PROJECTED AIDS
This are teaching aids that cast images or
information on a screen and usually use
electricity.
They are expensive and can be difficult to
maintain.
These aids include:
LCD Projector.
Films.
Slides.
 NON PROJECTED AIDS
. These are aids that you can find within your
environment.
You can select these well in advance of the
lesson and pre test them before classroom
use.
These include:
1.The chalkboard
2.White board
3. Pictures or cartoons
4. Flipcharts
5. Posters
6. Handouts
 TEACHING SKILLS / TECHNOLOGIES
.
They are also known as micro
teaching skills
They are essential skills to manage a
classroom.
They enable an instructor to practice
and perfect skills and produce
opportunities for immediate feedback.
These are as follows:
1. Setting induction for the Audience
.It Involves the following
Introduction of the topic and self
Setting the importance of the topic
Reviewing previous knowledge

This captures the learners attention

2. Stimulus Variation
It includes:
Movement and gesturing.
Pause to allow learners to question
Focus on Important points
Change teaching aids.
This maintains the captured attention
3. Reinforcement
.
Involves acknowledging students and their
contribution.
It promotes good behavior and attention.
Increases learners attention, facilitates
learning and modify/remove destructive
Classroom behavior e.g. sleeping, day
dreaming
It also increases the learners confidence and
encourages independence.
When using reinforcement, the teacher should be:-
Warm and enthusiastic.
Avoid negative reinforcement if possible
Use reinforcement that is helpful to the learners
4. Questioning and Responding
. Test what students have learnt.
Stimulates students to participate in class
Makes the class lively
Lead to a deeper understanding as it
challenges
student to think.
Helps to clarify points.
The question may be open ended or closed
ended.
In order for this to be effective, the teacher
should:
 a) Spread the question around and involve
. as many students as possible.
b) Not allow one student to dominate
c) Probe the student for more suggestions
to clarify any point that may appear
ambiguous.
d) Use prompting technique e.g.
rephrase/simplify
the question.
e) Questions must be clear.
f) Allow for pauses after the question to
give
students time to think.
5. Explaining and use of Examples
. This is meant to give understanding. One should
consider the following.
a. Clarity and fluency- vocabulary chosen should be
clear and appropriate. The language should flow
smoothly with acceptable structure.
b. Emphasis - Put emphasis on key ideas e.g. pause,
repeat, vary the pitch/tone of the voice. Use
verbal clues e.g. main points, note carefully etc.
c. Use examples known to all members
d. Organize well- start with simple to complex
concepts.
e. Give feedback from the student.
. 6. Closure of the topic
It involves summarizing and
evaluating the content of the lesson.
Also asking and answering questions
and going through the main points
 TOOLS OF WORK
1. Scheme of work
It is a detailed, logical, sequential plan
that interprets the syllabus into units
that can be used in a teaching or
learning
It is a demanding process as it requires
the teacher to know:
The learner characteristics
The subject matter or content
The teaching environment
The teacher should be competent.
 It is a vital tool in teaching as it helps
. in the following ways:
1. In lesson planning: It is from the
scheme of work that a teacher derives
lesson plans for specific
lessons.
2. It helps in handing over and teaching
over
An outgoing teacher knows what he or
she has covered and what is remaining
They are able to orientate the
incoming member of staff or teacher.
3.
. It helps the teacher in organizing
lessons hence they are systematic in
lessons in their work.
This is because in preparation of
scheme
of work the teacher breaks down the
main
topic in an orderly manner.
4. The scheme of work helps to ensure
there is continuity in teaching as it
helps prevent
omission of subtopics.
 •
FORMAT
The scheme of work is composed of
two parts the pre-ample and the main
body
Pre-ample
It contains the administrative work to
includes:
Name of the document, name of the
institution, name of the class, name of
the subject and theperiod.
The body
It contains seven to eleven columns
REFERENCES
. There are three types of references -
primary, secondary and tertiary.
Primary references
These are seminars and conferences.
Direct involvement/participation by the
teacher
The teacher should indicate the place,
the person who gave the information,
the date of the seminar and the topic.
. Secondary references
They include books and journals .
For books one should indicate the
title of the book, the name of the
author , the topic , the publishing
house and the town of publisher.
For journals one should indicate the
name,
the volume, the article, the author
and the
page.
.Tertiary references
They include films, video and a
computer
down load.
The teacher should indicate the
producer, the name, the title, the date
of production and for computers the
date and the site of down loading.
 FACTORS TO CONSIDER
WHEN SCHEMING
Availability of syllabus ,
Level of experience,
Background of learners,
Teaching and learning experiences
Resources available in school/community
Teaching style and competency of the teacher
Constrains within the school environment
subject
Number of lessons per week
Assessment of learning.....example of scheme
of work
 THE LESSON PLANNING
A PROCESS
lesson plan is a work plan
showing all the activities that are
going to take place during a lesson
and the order they are going to follow
Involves mapping out of strategies and
resources to be presented during
s3ituation in classroom
The teacher must ask himself the
following
questions
 Who are my learners?
. What shall I teach?
What do I want to achieve?
Which teaching method shall I use?
How best shall I involve the learners
in their own learning?(learner activity)
What resources are required?
How shall I monitor the progress of
my
teaching?
How shall I check that the lesson was
a
success?
 The teacher puts the following into
. consideration
Teaching strategies: i.e events ,
interactions and management of time
Stages / steps - Defined activities in the
teaching and varying instructional tasks
denoting amount of time allocated to
each.
Instructional objectives, lesson
objectives: the objectives should be
SMART.
Learning activities: this should be
suitable to the learner.
.
Significance of lesson planning
Guides a teacher in systematically
presenting subject matter in a logical,
interrelated and integrated way
Provides definite objective for each day
Helps in achievement of definite goals
and objectives
Prevents the teacher to deviate from the
topic
.
Helps the teacher to overcome the
feeling of nervousness ,insecurity and
gives him confidence to face the class
Enables the teacher to evaluate his
work as the lesson proceeds
Enables the teacher to link new
knowledge with previous
Enables best use of planned time
 Components of a lesson
plan
Topic .Teaching aids
Time: . Evaluation
Date: . Summary
Venue
Student/learners
Teaching and Learning Method
activities
Broad/major objective:
e g By the end of the lesson the student
should be able to use the knowledge
acquired, to describe the anatomy and
physiology of the respiratory system
.

Example of a lesson plan

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 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
AND TEACHING
Assessment- Refers to process of finding
out to what extent learners have achieved
set objectives
Evaluation- it is placing a value on the
learners performance in order to make a
decision about the learner e.g. pass,
failure, successful etc.
Evaluation is an integral part of
instructional process and is the most
important tasks of a teacher
Testing-a systematic procedure for
comparing performance of an individual
with designated standard of performance
Examination-tools or formal mechanism
 Purpose of evaluating
learners
Help the learner to understand
themselves.
Help in the retention and transfer of
learning.
Motivates the learner.
Predict the level of the learner's future
performance.
Judge the learner’s achievements.
Monitor the learner’s progress for the
purpose of providing feedback.
Determine teaching effectiveness.
.
License the practice of a profession.
Identify the weak and strong areas of a
course.
Grade and rank students
Gauge the reputation of school
performance.
Protect society, that is, inform the
community of the extent to which
graduates constitute a potential
danger.
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 TYPES OF EVALUATION
Formative evaluation.
Is progressive, that is, the learner and learning
are evaluated on a continuous basis.
It provides feedback on the strengths and
weaknesses of the learner.
It is performed frequently, that is, after small
units of learning.
Summative evaluation
It is carried out at the end of the course, term
or programme.
Mainly used in certification, licensing or select
learner for further educational programme
. Reveals student ability to integrate and
apply learning

Diagnostic evaluation-
Type of evaluation done before learners
begin a programme.
Done to test entry behaviour, pretests
Prior to admission.

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Characteristics a of good
evaluation tool
Valid- should measure what is supposed to
measure
Reliable-should be accurate and consistent
Objective-Should be free of individual bias
Discriminate-Should reveal reasonable
range of scores. Normal distribution curve
Practical- in terms of resources and
number of students being assessed
.
A good evaluation system should include
both formative and summative evaluation
Formative evaluation gives diagnostic
feedback to both the teacher and the
learner
while summative evaluation reveals the
student’s ability to integrate and apply
learning
 THE EVALUATION CONTENT
. It is selected from the entire course work
covered in the term or year with samples of all
learning tasks.

It should include:
Knowledge
Skills
Attitudes
Assessing knowledge
advantages
Allows other attributes of learning
other than memory
Encourages wide learning and
reading
Easy to develop
Allows in depth of learning
Disadvantages
High risk of failure
Biased especially in marking
And results highly subjective
Marking is time consuming
Objective Type
Includes Mcq’s, matching type, filling in or
completing true and false
Advantages
Allow testing a wide content area
Gives objective results
They are easy to mark
Margin of error is reduced
Low bias
Disadvantages
They are prone to gazing
They require in depth learning
Difficult to develop
Assessing skills
There are two types of assessment used
a) Objective Structured Practical Examination
(OSPE)-
• It is where a candidate pass through a number of
exam stations to answer or solve various problem.
• The questions vary from practical skills,
knowledge to testing attitude.
b) Objective structured clinical exam (OSCE)
It is a comprehensive examination of the patient
by a student and discusses the patient with a panel
of examiners
 The exam should be set up in the
. following manner:
Brief examination of a patient followed
by oral questions
Assessment of student work during
practice using rating scales
Assessment of log and procedure
books
Case records and reports

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 Assessing Attitudes
Attitudes can be assessed indirectly, that is,
as the candidate performs a skill.
This will have to be over a long period so
that your assessment is based on repetition
of the same attitude over time
Types of Tools
.
You can use a rating scale based on
a table analysis (likert scale),
Semantic differential, that is, a scale
on opposite characteristics.eg
Keen and willing – does minimum
work.
Accepts instructions – ignores
instructions.
Polite to patients – Rude.

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 Ref; A guide for training
teachers of health workers

07-05-2009 BCK 214