Computer Networks

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 Multiple Access

Figure 12.1 Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 2

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access

Figure 2 Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 3

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access
 In random access or contention methods, no station is
superior to another station and none is assigned the
control over another.

 No station permits, or does not permit, another station to

send.

 At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a

procedure defined by the protocol to make a decision on
whether or not to send.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 4

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access
 In random access or contention methods, no station is
superior to another station and none is assigned the
control over another.
 No station permits, or does not permit, another station to
send. At each instance, a station that has data to send uses
a procedure defined by the protocol to make a decision on
whether or not to send.
 ALOHA
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

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McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access: ALOHA

Figure 3 Frames in a pure ALOHA network

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 6

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access: ALOHA

Figure 4 Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 7
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access: ALOHA
 Example:
 The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a
maximum of 600 km apart. If we assume that signals
propagate at 3 × 108 m/s, we find
Tp = (600 × 105 ) / (3 × 108 ) = 2 ms.
Now we can find the value of TB for different values of K.

a) For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to|

generate a random number with a value of 0 or 1.
This
means that TB is either 0 ms (0 × 2) or 2 ms (1 × 2),
based on the outcome of the random variable.
Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 8
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access: ALOHA

b) For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that T B

can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on the outcome of the
random variable.

c) For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This

means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, . . . , 14 ms, based on the
outcome of the random variable.

d) We need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to

10.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 9

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access: ALOHA

Figure 5 Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 10

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access: ALOHA
 Example 12.2
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the requirement to

make this frame collision-free?

Solution:

Average frame transmission time Tfr is 200 bits/200 kbps or 1 ms. The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms = 2 ms. This

means no station should send later than 1 ms before this station starts transmission and no station should start

sending during the one 1-ms period that this station is sending.

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McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access: ALOHA

The throughput for pure ALOHA is

−2G
S=G×e .

The maximum throughput

Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 12

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access: ALOHA
Example: A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if

the system (all stations together) produces a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second c. 250 frames per

second.

Solution

The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.

a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this
−2 G
case S = G× e or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent). This means that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 =

135 frames. Only 135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 13

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Multiple Access: ALOHA
b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this case
−2G
S=G×e or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent). This means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that only

92 frames out of 500 will probably survive. Note that this is the maximum throughput case, percentagewise.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case

2G
S = G × e − or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent). This means

that the throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38. Only 38

frames out of 250 will probably survive.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 14

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: Slotted ALOHA

Figure 6 Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: Slotted ALOHA

The throughput for slotted ALOHA is

−G
S=G×e .

The maximum throughput

Smax = 0.368 when G = 1.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 16

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: Slotted ALOHA

Figure 12.7 Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: Slotted ALOHA
Example: A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the

throughput if the system (all stations together) produces a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second c.

250 frames per second.

Solution:

The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1ms.

a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case S =
−G
G× e or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent). This means that the throughput is 1000 × 0.0368 = 368 frames. Only 386

frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 18

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: Slotted ALOHA
Solution:

The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1ms.

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this case

S = G × e−G or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent). This means that the throughput is 500 × 0.0303 = 151. Only 151

frames out of 500 will probably survive.

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case

S = G × e −G or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent). This means that the throughput is 250 × 0.195 = 49. Only 49 frames

out of 250 will probably survive.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 19

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA

Figure 12.8 Space/time model of the collision in CSMA

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA

Figure 9 Vulnerable time in CSMA

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA

Figure 10 Behavior of three persistence methods

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA

Figure 11 Flow diagram for three persistence methods

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA/CD

Figure 12 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA/CD

Figure 13 Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 25

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA/CD
Example:
 A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps. If the maximum propagation time (including the
delays in the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a jamming signal, as we see later) is 25.6 μs, what is

the minimum size of the frame?

Solution:
 The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs. This means, in the worst case, a station needs to
transmit for a period of 51.2 μs to detect the collision. The minimum size of the frame is 10 Mbps × 51.2 μs =

512 bits or 64 bytes. This is actually the minimum size of the frame for Standard Ethernet.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 26

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA/CD

Figure 14 Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA/CD

Figure 15 Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA/CA

Figure 16 Timing in CSMA/CA

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA/CA

In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 30

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA/CA

In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the timer of the

contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 31

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Multiple Access: CSMA/CA

Figure 12.17 Flow diagram for CSMA/CA

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Controlled Access

 In controlled access, the stations consult one another to

find which station has the right to send. A station cannot
send unless it has been authorized by other stations. We
discuss three popular controlled-access methods.

 Reservation
 Polling
 Token Passing

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Reservation Access Method

Figure 18 Reservation access method

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Polling Access Method

Figure 19 Select and poll functions in polling access method

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Token Passing Access Method

Figure 20 Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization
 Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the
available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or
through code, between different stations. In this section, we
discuss three channelization protocols.

 Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 37

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: FDMA

Figure 21 Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 38

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: FDMA

In FDMA, the available bandwidth

of the common channel is divided into bands that are separated by guard bands.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 39

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: TDMA

Figure 22 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 40

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: TDMA

In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is timeshared between different

stations.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 41

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions simultaneously.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 42

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

Figure 23 Simple idea of communication with code

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

Figure 24 Chip sequences

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

Figure 25 Data representation in CDMA

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

Figure 26 Sharing channel in CDMA

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

Figure 27 Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

Figure 28 Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

Figure 29 General rule and examples of creating Walsh tables

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

m
The number of sequences in a Walsh table needs to be N = 2 .

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McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

Example: Find the chips for a network with

a. Two stations b. Four stations

Solution:

We can use the rows of W2 and W4 in Figure 29:

a. For a two-station network, we have

[+1 +1] and [+1 −1].

b. For a four-station network we have

[+1 +1 +1 +1], [+1 −1 +1 −1],

[+1 +1 −1 −1], and [+1 −1 −1 +1].

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 51

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA

Example: What is the number of sequences if we have 90 stations in our network?

Solution:
m 7
The number of sequences needs to be 2 . We need to choose m = 7 and N = 2 or 128. We can then use 90 of

the sequences as the chips.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 52

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA
Example: Prove that a receiving station can get the data sent by a specific sender if it multiplies the entire data on the

channel by the sender’s chip code and then divides it by the number of stations.

Solution:

Let us prove this for the first station, using our previous four-station example. We can say that the data on the

channel

D = (d1 ⋅ c1 + d2 ⋅ c2 + d3 ⋅ c3 + d4 ⋅ c4).

The receiver which wants to get the data sent by station 1 multiplies these data by c1.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 53

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 Channelization: CDMA
Example Cont…:

When we divide the result by N, we get d1 .

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 54

McGraw Hill Education(India).

 References
 Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and
Networking” Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill Education(India).

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