• Development & Differentation
• Fertilization
• Gestation
• Cleavage
• Implantation
• Bilaminar and Trilamina Germ layers
• Embryonic development: Gastrula to Fetus
• Development – the gradual modification of anatomical structures
during the period from fertilization to maturity
• A single cell becomes an individual human being containing trillions
of cells
• Differentiation – the process whereby all the different cell types are
produced through selective changes in genetic activity
Major Phases of
Development
Fertilization – fusion of the male and female gamates
Embryological development – first two months after fertilization
Fetal development – from the beginning of the 9th week until birth
Postnatal development – commences at birth
Fertilization
• Involves the fusion of two haploid gamates with 23 chromosomes each to
produce a zygote that contains 46 chromosomes
• Fertilization generally occurs n the uterine tube and generally within one day of
ovulation
• Oocyte – the ovulated secondary oocyte is in metaphase of meiosis; it is
surrounded by the corona radiata which is a protective layer of cells; the oocyte is
travelling through the uterine tube toward the uterus
• Sperm – are introduced into the female reproductive tract; of the 200 million
spermatozoa ejaculated into the vagina, about 10,000 enter the uterine tube, and
fewer than 100 sperm reach the egg
The acrosomal cap of sperm contains the enzyme hyaluronidase which breaks down the
bonds between the cells of the corona radiate
Dozens of sperm are needed to penetrate the corona radiata
Fertilization
Relationship between capacitation,
acrosome reaction and fertilization
Capacitation
Changes that enable the spermatozoa to undergo the
acrosome reaction and hyperactivation. Normally, this
occurs when semen interacts with the vaginal fluids
As a result of capacitation, spermatozoa acquire the
capacity to bind to the zona pellucida. This event is
believed to result from the “unmasking” of a species
specific ZP-3 receptor in sperm membrane.
• Zona penetration
• As a consequence of the acrosome reaction,
the zona pellucida is locally hydrolyzed. This
together with hyperactation, allows the
spermatozoon to penetrate the zona pellucida
Fertilization
Accomplishing fertilization
A single sperm makes contact with the oocyte
membrane
The oocyte is activated and completes meiosis
II, which results in the production of the second
polar body. Meiosis I produced the first polar
body); note: the oocyte has a single set of 23
chromosomes
The sperm is absorbed into the much larger
oocyte cytoplasm
A male pronucleus and female pronucleus
form, and then fuse
The result is the formation of a zygote (single
cell) with the 2 complimentary pairs of 23
chromosomes (46 chromosomes)
The events that occur during
fertilization
Capacitated sperm binds to zona pellucida protein-3 (ZP-3) which induces the acrosome reaction
1. The acrosomal process facilitates ZP penetration.
2. Sperm-egg contact induces the cortical granule reaction and the block to polyspermy
Gestation
The is the time spent in prenatal development
First trimester – embryological development and early fetal development; this trimester with
fertilization; the basic structure of all the major organ systems appear
Second trimester – development of organs and organ systems; by the end of this trimester, the
fetus looks human
Third trimester – characterized by rapid fetal growth; by early in this trimester, most of the organ
systems become fully functional; this trimester ends in birth.
• An infant born 1 or 2 months prematurely has a reasonable chance of survival
Cleavage
Is a series of cell divisions that subdivide the
cytoplasm of the zygote
Morula – solid ball of cells that results after 3
days of cleavage; all of the cells are identical;
the morula reaches the uterus on day 4
Blastocyst – hollow ball of cells after 3 more
days of cleavage (6th day)
The cells are no longer identical
The inner cavity is called the blastocele
(blastocyst cavity); the outer layer of cells
is called the trophoblast
The inner cell mass is a group of cells that
will become the embryo; the trophoblast
protects the inner cell mass from the
outside environment
Implantation
– seven days after fertilization, implantation begins as the
blastocyst connects to the endometrium of the uterus
• The trophoblast erodes a path through the
endometrium by secreting hyaluronidase
• The trophoblast continues to enlarge and spread into
the surrounding endometrium
• The erosion of uterine glands releases nutrients that
are absorbed by the trophoblast and distributed by
diffusion to the inner cell mass
• Trophoblastic extensions encircle endometrial
capillaries
• Villi – extend from the trophoblast into the
endometrium and larger endometrial blood vessels are
surrounded and broken down resulting in greater blood
flow through the lacunae
• Implantation most often takes place in the fundus of
body of the uterus;
• Ectopic pregnancy – when implantation occurs
anywhere but the uterus; if implantation takes place in
the uterine tubes it can be life-threatening
Implantation Phases
A. Hatching pahse
B. Appostion phase
C. Adhesion phase
D. Invasive phase
Hatching phase
Invasive phase: after attachment, the
trophoblast cells begin to penetrate the
uterine epethelium
Implantation can occur in the uterine tube, cervix, or the abdominal cavity.
Implantation anywhere outside the uterus is called ectopic pregnancy.
It is possible for fetus to grow in the abodimal cavity, but growth inside the uterine tube causes
the tube to rupture, resulting in severe bleeding.
Bilaminar and Trilaminar Germ
layers
• Inner cell mass forms two cavities:
- The yolk sac
- Amniotic cavity
• In humans, the yolk sac produces blood cells and future sex cells
• The amniotic cavity becomes the cavity in which the embryo floats. Fluid is
produced from fetal urine, and secretions from the skin, respiratory tract, and
amniotic membranes.
• Amniotic cavity – formed by the time of
implantation in the blastocyst; this cavity is formed
when the inner mass separates from the
trophoblast
• There are two layers of cells that comprise the
inner mass (ectoderm and endoderm)
• By day 12, a third layer forms through gastrulation
in which cells move toward the primitive streak
In between the yolk sac and the amniotic
cavity is the embryonic disc, which gives rise
to the primary germ layers
The 3 Germ Layers – these three layers of
cells will differentiate into all of the
structures of the body:
Ectoderm – will form the skin, hair, nails,
spinal cord, epithelium of nasal passages, and
muth
Mesoderm – will form the bones, muscles,
heart, blood vessels, kdneys
Endoderm – will form the pancreas, thyroid
gland, liver, urinary bladder, respiratory
epithelium, digestive epithelium
Four extraembryonic membranes
Yolk sac – important site of blood cell formation
Amnion – surrounds the fluid-filled amniotic cavity which protects the embryo
Allantois – will give rise to the urinary bladder
Chorion – combination of mesoderm and trophoblast that will form the placenta
• Chorionic villi – branch and enlarge within the endometrium; embryonic blood
vessels develop within each villus and blood flow begins in them by the beginning
of the 3rd week; they provide the surface area for active and passive exchange of
gases, nutrients, and waste products between fetal and maternal blood streams.
• Embryonic phase of development lasts from fertilization until the 8th
week of gestation, when it becomes a fetus.
• By day 35 the heart is beating, and eye and limb buds are present
• By month four, the nutrients of all organ systems are formed and
functioning, and from then on, fetal development is primarily a
matter of growth.
• By the end of the third month the placenta is functioning
Placentation
The enlarging chorion becomes the placenta
by the end of the 4th week a body stalk has formed that connects the embryo and chorion;
the body stalk contains blood vessels that carry blood to and from the placenta
the placenta becomes concentrated in a disc-shaped area in the endometrium
The placenta is fully formed by the end of the 3rd month
near the end of the first trimester the fetus moves farther from the placenta
the fetus and placenta remain connected by the umbilical cord which now contains the
placenta blood vessels
the placenta provides nutrients to the embryo-fetus, a site for gas exchange between the
mother and the embryo-fetus, and a place where the embryo-fetus can get rid of its
wastes
• The placenta also secretes other hormones –human
placental lactogen, human chorionic thyrotropin, and
relaxin
• Umbilical arteries – these paired arteries carry blood
from the embryo-fetus to the placenta
• Umbilical vein – this vein carries nutrient and oxygen
rich blood from the placenta to the embryo-fetus
*Mother and baby’s blood do not mix!
Placentation
Formation of the placenta from
• Embryonic trophoblastic tissues
• Maternal endometrial tissues
• These from the chorion
The placenta is fully formed and functional by the end of the third
month
Embryonic placenta barriers allow for the passage of nutrients but
the blood does not inter-mix
