Contents

• Newton's Law of
Universal Gravity
• Applications of
Gravity
• Kepler’s Laws of
Planetary Motion
• Escape velocity
• Satellites and
orbits
• Presented by: Dr.
K.O. Dopamu
Newton's Law of Universal Gravity

• Gravity is the force of nature that attracts one

mass to another mass.
• Gravity holds you on the Earth, causes apples to
fall, and, as in the figure below, accelerates
sledders down snowy slopes.
• Gravitational force, as described by Isaac
Newton's law of universal gravitation, is the
attractive force that objects with mass exert on
each other.
• According to this law, the force of gravity
between two objects is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between their centers.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravity

• On a larger scale, gravity is responsible for the

motion of the Moon, Earth, and other planets.
• To describe the force of gravity, Newton
proposed the following law:
Newton's Law of Universal Gravity

• The constant G in this equation is referred to as

the universal gravitation constant.
• The numerical value of G is
G = 6.67 x 10−11 Nm2/kg2
• According to Newton's law of gravity, all objects
in the universe attract all other objects in the
universe. In short, everything in the universe
"feels" everything else.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravity

• Due to the tiny numerical value of G,

0.0000000000667 Nm2/kg2, gravity is the
weakest force of nature.
• The force of gravity between objects of everyday
size is imperceptible. It only becomes important
for large objects such as planets and stars.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravity

• The example
below
illustrates how
Newton's law
of gravity may
be applied.
Note gravity's
minuscule
effects on
ordinary
objects.
Applications of Gravity

• The gravitational force experienced by a mass m

on the Earth's surface is also given by mg.
Therefore, mg = GmME/RE2.
• Solving for g, g = GmME/RE2.
• By inserting known values for G, ME, and RE, we
find g = 9.81 m/s2, the acceleration due to
gravity.
• This result for g assumes a perfectly spherical
Earth, with a uniform distribution of mass. In
reality, small deviations in shape and structure
cause small variations in the acceleration due to
gravity.
Applications of Gravity

• The gravity map in the figure below was constructed

from a combination of surface gravity measurements and
satellite tracking data. Gravity is strongest in red areas
and weakest in blue areas.

• Gravity maps provide information on ocean currents,

seismic activity, and petroleum deposits.
Applications of Gravity

• Gravity on other astronomical bodies may be

found by applying a modified version of the
equation for g on Earth. The equation can be
rewritten to apply to any mass and radius as
follows:
g = GM/R2

• The following example shows how the equation

may be used to find the acceleration of gravity
on the surface of the Moon.
Applications of Gravity

• In 1798, more than 100 years after Newton published his

law of gravity, the British physicist Henry Cavendish
measured the value of the universal gravitation constant
G that appears in Newton's law of gravity.
• G is an extremely small number; consequently, it was a
long time before it was measured.
 Calculating the Gravitational Constant
In 1798 Sir Henry Cavendish suspended a rod with two small masses
(red) from a thin wire. Two larger mass (green) attract the small
masses and cause the wire to twist slightly, since each force of
attraction produces a torque in the same direction. By varying the
masses and measuring the separations and the amount of twist,
Cavendish was the first to calculate G.

Since G is only
6.67 · 10-11 N·m2 / kg2,
the measurements had
to be very precise.
 Calculating the mass of the Earth
Knowing G, we can now actually calculate the mass of the Earth. All
we do is write the weight of any object in two different ways and
equate them. Its weight is the force of gravity between it and the
Earth, which is FG in the equation below. ME is the mass of the
Earth, RE is the radius of the Earth, and m is the mass of the object.
The object’s weight can also be written as mg.
G m 1 m2 G ME m
FG = r2
= RE 2
= mg

The m’s cancel in the last equation. g can be measured experimentally;

Cavendish determined G’s value; and RE can be calculated at
6.37 · 106 m (see next slide). ME is the only unknown. Solving for
ME we have:
g RE 2
ME = = 5.98 · 1024 kg
G
Applications of Gravity

• A determination of the mass of the Earth allowed

geologists to determine the Earth's average
density. They found the following:
average density of Earth = 5.53 g/cm 3

• Since typical rocks near the surface of the Earth

have a density of only about 3.00 g/cm 3, the
interior of the Earth must have a density that is
greater than that of its surface.
• This has been confirmed through seismic wave
analysis, which has shown that the Earth's inner
core has a density of about 15 g/cm 3.
 Gravity Example
How hard do two planets pull on each other if their masses are
1.23  1026 kg and 5.21  1022 kg and they 230 million kilometers
apart?
G m 1 m2
FG = r2

= (6.67 · 10 -11
N·m 2
/ kg2
) (1.23 · 10 26
kg) (5.21 · 10 22
kg)
(230 · 103 · 106 m) 2
= 8.08 · 1015 N

This is the force each planet exerts on the other. Note the denominator
is has a factor of 103 to convert to meters and a factor of 106 to
account for the million. It doesn’t matter which way or how fast the
planets are moving.
Inverse Square Law
The law of gravitation is called an inverse square law because the
magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the square of the
separation. If the masses are moved twice as far apart, the force of
gravity between is cut by a factor of four. Triple the separation and
the force is nine times weaker.

G m 1 m2
FG = r2
The shape of the Earth is
approximately an oblate
spheroid. An oblate spheroid is
a three-dimensional shape that
is similar to a sphere but slightly
flattened at the poles and
bulging at the equator. This
flattened shape is due to the
Earth's rotation, which causes it
to slightly deform from a perfect
The difference between the
equatorial and polar diameters is
relatively small, but it is enough
to give the Earth its oblate
spheroid shape. The flattening is
a result of the centrifugal force
generated by the Earth's
rotation, pushing material away
from the axis of rotation.
In a more technical sense, the
 Kepler’s Laws of
Planetary Motion
Here is a summary of Kepler’s 3 Laws:

1. Planets move around the sun in elliptical paths with the

sun at one focus of the ellipse.
2. While orbiting, a planet sweep out equal areas in equal
times.
3. The square of a planet’s period (revolution time) is
proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun:

T 2  R3
These laws apply to any satellite orbiting a much
larger body.
 Kepler’s First Law
Planets move around the sun in elliptical paths with the
sun at one focus of the ellipse.

F1 F2
Sun

P
Planet
An ellipse has two foci, F1 and F2. For any point P on the ellipse,
F1 P + F2 P is a constant. The orbits of the planets are nearly circular
(F1 and F2 are close together), but not perfect circles. A circle is a an
ellipse with both foci at the same point--the center. Comets have very
eccentric (highly elliptical) orbits.
 Kepler’s Second Law (proven in advanced physics)
While orbiting, a planet sweep out equal areas in equal times.

Sun C

The blue shaded sector has the same area as the red shaded sector.
Thus, a planet moves from C to D in the same amount of time as it
moves from A to B. This means a planet must move faster when it’s
closer to the sun. For planets this affect is small, but for comets it’s
quite noticeable, since a comet’s orbit is has much greater eccentricity.
 Kepler’s Third Law
The square of a planet’s period is proportional to the
cube of its mean distance from the sun: T 2  R 3
Assuming that a planet’s orbit is circular (which is not exactly correct
but is a good approximation in most cases), then the mean distance
from the sun is a constant--the radius. F is the force of gravity on the
planet. F is also the centripetal force. If the orbit is circular, the
planet’s speed is constant, and v = 2  R / T. Therefore,
GMm m v2 m [2  R / T] 2
= =
R2 R R
m Cancel m’s GM 4 2 R
F Planet and simplify: =
R2 T2
M
Sun R 4  2
Rearrange: T 2 = R3
GM
Since G, M, and  are constants, T 2  R 3.
 Third Law Analysis
4  2
We just derived T 2 = R3
GM
• It also shows that the orbital period depends on the mass of the
central body (which for a planet is its star) but not on the mass of the
orbiting body. In other words, if Mars had a companion planet the
same distance from the sun, it would have the same period as Mars,
regardless of its size.
• This shows that the farther away a planet is from its star, the longer
it takes to complete an orbit. Likewise, an artificial satellite circling
Earth from a great distance has a greater period than a satellite
orbiting closer. There are two reasons for this: 1. The farther away
the satellite is, the farther it must travel to complete an orbit; 2. The
farther out its orbit is, the slower it moves, as shown:
GMm m v2 GM
=  v =
R2 R R
ESCAPE VELOCITY
How Escape Speeds are Calculated

The basic concept is based on the conservation of

energy. The KE of the satellite at launch equals the
PE at the escape point.
How Escape Speeds are Calculated

Solving for r:
•
• v escape refers to the escape velocity (m/s)
G is the universal gravitational constant (6.673 ×
10-11 N . m2 / kg2)
M refers to the mass of the planet or moon (kg)
R is the radius of the planet or moon (m)
• Question– Suppose the radius of Earth is 6.38
× 10^6 m and the mass of the planet earth is
5.98 × 10^24 kg. Find out the escape velocity
from planet earth.
• Answer– We can find the escape velocity from
earth using the escape velocity formula:
• Question– In order to leave the moon, the Apollo
astronauts had to take off in the lunar mobile and
reach the escape velocity of the moon. The radius of
the moon is 1.74 × 106 m, and the mass of the moon
is 7.35 × 1022 kg. Calculate the velocity which the
Apollo astronauts have to reach in order to leave the
moon?

= 2.37 km/s.
Here are some points to note about escape
velocity:
• Escape velocity depends on the mass and
radius of the celestial body. A larger mass or
smaller radius will result in a higher escape
velocity.
• The escape velocity is independent of the mass
of the escaping object.
• The direction of escape velocity is always
tangential to the surface of the celestial body.
• Once an object exceeds the escape velocity, it
will continue to move away from the body
indefinitely, assuming no further external forces
act on it.
• For Earth, the escape velocity from its surface is
approximately 11.2 kilometers per second (about
33 times the speed of sound in air).
• Escape velocity is a critical concept in space
exploration, as it determines the energy required
for spacecraft to leave the gravitational influence
of celestial bodies such as planets and moons.
• Satellites' motion and orbits are essential
concepts in space exploration and
telecommunications. Satellites orbit around celestial
bodies, such as planets, moons, or the Sun, under the
influence of gravitational forces. Here's an overview of
satellite motion and orbits:
Types of Orbits:
1. Geostationary Orbit (GEO): Satellites in
geostationary orbit orbits the Earth at the same speed as
the Earth's rotation, making them appear stationary
relative to a fixed point on the Earth's surface. They are
typically used for telecommunications, weather
monitoring, and broadcasting.
 2. Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Satellites in low Earth
orbit are relatively close to the Earth's surface,
typically between 160 kilometers (100 miles) and
2,000 kilometers (1,240 miles) above the surface.
They orbit the Earth more quickly and are used for
purposes such as Earth observation, scientific
research, and communication.

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3. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Satellites in medium
Earth orbit are located between low Earth orbit and
geostationary orbit, typically around 8,000 kilometers
(5,000 miles) to 20,000 kilometers (12,400 miles)
above the Earth's surface. They are commonly used
for navigation and global positioning system (GPS)
satellites.
4. Polar Orbit: Satellites in polar orbit pass over the
Earth's poles as they orbit the planet. They provide
global coverage and are often used for Earth.
Motion of Satellites:
• Orbital Velocity: Satellites move at a specific
velocity determined by their altitude and the
gravitational force acting upon them. Orbital
velocity is the speed required to maintain a
stable orbit around a celestial body without
falling back to the surface.

• Kepler's Laws: Satellites follow Kepler's laws of

planetary motion, which describe the elliptical
orbits of objects around a central mass. Kepler's
laws govern the shape, size, and speed of a
satellite's orbit.
 • Period and Altitude: The period of a satellite's
orbit (the time it takes to complete one orbit) is
determined by its altitude and orbital velocity.
Satellites in lower orbits have shorter periods,
while those in higher orbits have longer periods

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Satellite Launch and Control:
• Launch Vehicles: Satellites are launched into
space using rockets or space shuttles. Launch
vehicles provide the necessary thrust to propel the
satellite into its desired orbit.
• Attitude Control: Once in orbit, satellites use
onboard propulsion systems or reaction wheels to
maintain their orientation and stability. Attitude
control systems ensure that satellites remain
pointed in the correct direction for their mission
objectives.
• Station-Keeping: Geostationary satellites require
station-keeping maneuvers to maintain their
position in orbit. These maneuvers adjust the
satellite's velocity and altitude to counteract
•Thank you
Listening