INTRODUCTION TO

ANATOMY
 Introduction

• Definition: Anatomy - anatome: ana = up; tome = cutting

• It is the science that studies the internal and external structures and the shape of the body parts
and their relationship with one another.

• The study of anatomy can be subdivided into:

– Microscopic anatomy or histology – study of fine structures (cells & tissues)of the human body with
the aid of a microscope

– Macroscopic anatomy or gross anatomy – The study of human body with the naked eyes

– Developmental anatomy (Embryology) – the study of the growing embryo or fetus.

– Radiological Anatomy- the study of the bodily structure using radiograph and other imaging methods.

– Applied Anatomy- the practical application knowledge to diagnosis and treatment.

– Surgical Anatomy – study of anatomical structure in reference to the surgical diagnosis and treatment.

– Cross sectional Anatomy – studying the human body through a transverse cut through a structure or
tissue.
 Main approaches to studying Anatomy

• Systemic anatomy
• Regional anatomy (topographic)
• Clinical anatomy
• Comparative anatomy
 Anatomical Terminology
A. Anatomical position – it is the standard position in which the body assume to
describe its parts, this is to insure that the descriptions are unambiguous.
• A person in the anatomical position:
– Is standing erect or lying supine (on one’s back) as if erect, with head, eyes, and toes
directed anteriorly (forward)

– Has upper limbs by the sides but slightly apart from the body with palms facing anteriorly

– Has lower limbs together with the feet directed anteriorly

• The standard anatomical position of the skull is called the Frankfurt plane. In
this position, the lower margin of the orbits (eye socket) and the upper margins of
the ear canals lie in the same horizontal plane.

• Generally, this position has 4 features:

– body is erect or supine
– feet parallel
– palm facing forward
– arms hanging by the side
Anatomical position
 Terms of Position or Direction

• Medial - nearer or towards the median plane

• Lateral - further from the median plane

• Anterior or Ventral - nearer to the front of the body

• Posterior or Dorsal - nearer to the back of the body

• Superior or Cephalic - nearer to the top of the head

• Inferior or Caudal - nearer to the bottom of the feet

• Superficial – near to the skin (surface)

• Deep– away from the skin

• Intermediate: between a superficial and a deep structure

• Proximal - nearer the point of origin or attachment

• Distal - further from the point of origin or attachment

• Hand- Dorsal surface (dorsum) and palmar surface (palm)

• Foot- Dorsal surface (dorsum) and plantar surface (sole)

 Anatomical Terminology
• ANATOMICAL PLANES: they are imaginary sections through the body in various
directions.
• Anatomical descriptions are based on four anatomical planes that pass through the body
in the anatomical position.

• Median (midsaggital) plane: A vertical plane passing through the midline of the body,
from front to back, through the sternum and vertebral spines; it cuts the body into right
and left equal halves.

• Sagittal planes: A vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the median plane,
but not passing through the midline; they divide the body into right and left portions.

• Coronal or frontal planes: A vertical planes which intersect the median plane at right
angles; they divide the body into anterior and posterior parts.

• Horizontal or transverse planes: A horizontal plane passing through the body at right
angles to both the median and coronal planes; they divide the body into superior and
inferior parts.
ANATOMICAL PLANES
 Anatomical Terminology

• Terms of Regions: All

descriptions are expressed in
relation to the anatomical
position.

– Head (Cephalic /Cranial) &

neck (Cervical) region
– Back region
– Thoracic region
– Abdominal region
– Pelvic and perineum region
– Upper extremity region
– Lower extremity region
 Anatomical Terminology
• Terms of movement:
• Flexion - to narrow (reduce) the angle of a joint (in the foot, it is also called
plantar flexion)

• Extension - to increase the angle of a joint (in the foot, it is also called
dorsiflexion)

• Abduction (take away) - movement away from the midline (or midpoint of the
hand/foot)

• Adduction (add to)- movement toward the midline (or midpoint of the
hand/foot)

• Pronation - rotating the forearm so the dorsum of the hand faces anteriorly

• Supination - rotating the forearm so the palm of the hand faces anteriorly

• Circumduction - circular motion of the shoulder or the hip; involves flexion,

extension, abduction, adduction, rotation
 Anatomical Terminology
• Terms of movement Cont’d
• Protraction - moving anteriorly, as in protracting the scapula
• Retraction - moving dorsally, as in retracting the scapula
• Opposition - drawing of the thenar pad toward contact with the hypothenar pad
(reposition is to return thumb to anatomical position)
• Elevation - to raise superiorly
• Depression - to move inferiorly
• Rotation - to move the body or extremity around a longitudinal axis
• Lateral - to rotate a joint externally, away from the median plane
• Medial - to rotate a joint internally, toward the median plane
• Inversion (also called supination) - to rotate the medial border of the foot superiorly
• Eversion (also called pronation) - to rotate the lateral border of the foot superiorly
• Hyperextension - to extend beyond normal range
• Dorsiflexion: The toes are brought closer to the shin, this decreases the angle
between the ankle and the leg.
• Plantar flexion: the toes are away to the shin, it increases the angle between the
ankle and the leg.
Terms of movement
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 BODY CAVITIES
• A body cavity is a fluid-filled space inside the body that
holds and protects the internal organs.

• Human body cavities are separated by membranes, it

accommodates organs and other structures.

• The two largest human body cavities are:

– ventral/anterior cavity
– Dorsal/posterior cavity

• These 2 cavities are further subdivided into smaller

body cavities
BODY CAVITIES
 BODY CAVITIES
• Dorsal body cavity, it is divided into 2 parts that are continuous
with each other. The membrane that surround the brain and
spinal cord in the cranial and spinal cavities are the meninges.
– The cranial cavity: it is a space inside the skull. It contains the brain
– The spinal cavity it is a space inside the vertebral column. It contains
the spinal cord.

• The ventral body cavity is divided by the diaphragm into;

• A. Thoracic cavity it lies superior to the diaphragm and
contains lungs, trachea, 2 bronchi, heart, oarta, superior and
inferior vena cava, numerous other blood vessels, oesophagus,
lymph vessels and nodes and nerves

• The mediastinum is the space between the lungs including the

structures found there such as heart, oesophagus and blood
vessels
 BODY CAVITIES
• Abdominopelvic cavity: it lies below the diaphragm. it is divided into
abdominal and pelvic cavities.

• The abdominal cavity: it is the largest cavity in the body and it is oval in
shape.

• It can be divided into 9 regions or 4 quadrants, for description of the

position of organs and structures it contains:
– Right hypochondriac region
– Epigastric region
– Left hypochondraic region
– Right lumbar region
– Umbilical region
– Left lumbar region
– Right iliac fossa
– Hypogastric region
– Left iliac fossa
BODY CAVITIES
BODY CAVITIES
 BODY CAVITIES
• The pelvic cavity is roughly funnel shaped
and extends from the lower end of the
abdominal cavity.

• It contains the following;

– Sigmoid colon, rectum and anus
– Some loops of the small intestines
– Urinary bladder, lower parts of the ureters and the
urethra and reproductive system
 Skeleton
• Bone - A specialized connective tissue made rigid by the
addition of inorganic salts. The skeleton is formed by 206 bones.

• Functions
– protection - skull and vertebral column protect the brain and spinal
cord; ribs. protect thoracic and upper abdominal organs
– support - provides support and erect posture
– movement - provides attachment for muscles; allows erect posture
– storage site for fats and minerals e.g. calcium (Ca++), phosphorus
– houses blood forming cells

• The skeleton is divided into;

– Axial – skull, sternum, vertebral columns and ribs
– Appendicular skeleton- pectoral and pelvic girdle, upper and lower
limbs
Metaphysis - part of diaphysis nearest 2°ossification
center

Epiphysis - secondary ossification center at the ends of

bone
 Markings on the bone
• Lines, Ridges, or Crests

• Rounded elevations
– Tuberosity; Trochanter - large, rounded
– Tubercle - small
– Protuberance - swelling
– Malleolus - mallet-like

• Spines or Processes - sharp elevations

• Fossae, Notches, Grooves - depressions along bones

• Foramina - holes in bones

• Canals - tunnels in bones

• Meatuses - canals which do not go clear through a bone

• Heads; Condyles - articular ends of bone

• Epicondyles - elevations just proximal to condyles

 Joints
• It is a connection in the skeleton between any of its
rigid component parts - bones or cartilage. It includes:

• Fibrous - a joint united by fibrous connective tissue.

E.g.
– Sutures - bones of the skull; allows little or no movement.
– Syndesmosis - opposed bones joined together by abundant
fibrous tissue e.gs. inferior tibiofibular joint,
tympanostapedial joint of middle ear and radioulnar
(interosseous membrane).
– Gomphoses - between teeth and bony sockets
 Joints
• Cartilaginous - bones with intervening cartilage
connecting them, either hyaline or fibrous cartilage e.gs.

– 1°cartilaginous/primary (synchondroses) e.g. epiphyseal

plate in growing bones now form the epiphyseal line.
cartilaginous joint between the sternum and the first rib and
synostosis = the conversion of a cartilaginous joint to bone.

– 2° cartilaginous/ secondary (symphyses) - skeletal

elements' surfaces are covered by hyaline cartilage and joined
by fibrous cartilage e.gs. intervertebral discs and pubic
symphysis
 Joints
• Synovial - the most common type of joint, it has four characteristics:
– a joint cavity
– joint surfaces lined with articular cartilage
– joint cavity lined by synovial membrane
– joint space is covered by an articular capsule
• It includes:
• Plane (gliding or sliding) - capable of movement in any direction, but generally within a single plane
(uniaxial); joint surfaces are almost flat e.gs articular joints of the vertebrae, carpal, tarsal, carpometacarpal
(except 1st), tarsometatarsal joints and acromioclavicular joint

• Hinge - permit movement in only one plane (two directions), flexion and extension e.gs. elbow
(humeroulnar) joint and interphalangeal joints

• Condyloid/ Ellipsoid- similar to hinge joints, but ellipsoidal shaped joint surfaces, permit more movement,
generally in two planes, at right angles to each other (biaxial) e.gs. knee joint ,wrist (radiocarpal) joint and
metacarpophalangeal joints

• Pivot - permit movement in only one direction, but around a longitudinal axis related to the bone e.gs.
radioulnar joint and atlantoaxial joint

• Saddle - articular surfaces are concavoconvex in shape and movements are in two planes (biaxial) e.gs. first
carpometacarpal joint (of the thumb) and sternoclavicular joint

• Ball and Socket - one bone has a rounded convex head and the other has a concave socket; it permits
movement in any direction; the freest of the synovial joints e.gs. hip and shoulder joints.
 Joints
• Structures associated with synovial joints
• Ligaments – They are bands or sheets of fibrous
connective tissue connecting two structures, generally
bones. It includes:
– Intrinsic - intra-articular; within a joint cavity
– Capsular - thickenings of the joint capsule
– Extrinsic - extracapsular; connective tissue bands outside the
joint capsule to provide joint stability

• Joint cartilages - additions to synovial joints. It includes:

– Articular Discs - fibrous cartilage pads which subdivide a joint
cavity; they provide added cushion to the joint action
– Meniscus and Labrum - rims of fibrous cartilage, for molding
or increasing the size of the joint surface
 Cartilage
• It is a specialized rigid connective tissue.

• In the skeleton cartilage serves as:

– Growth plate for bones, especially the long bones
– A bridge between adjacent bones
– Sliding surface and shock absorbers for joints
 Skeletal Muscles
• Morphology - the structure of a muscle will determine its strength .

• Different shapes of the skeletal muscle include the following:

• Parallel, or nearly parallel (fan shaped) - muscle fibers run parallel or nearly parallel to each
other and to the length of the muscle; this gives the greatest degree of movement. E.g. rectus
abdominis

• Fusiform (spindle-shaped): The muscle fibers runs parallel to each other. E.g. biceps brachi

• Circular: the muscle fibres runs in a circle. E.g. orbicularis oris

• Convergent: The muscle fibers converge at a point. E.g. pectoralis major

• Pennate - literally means feather-like; it means that the tendon runs nearly the length of the
muscle and the fibers insert into the tendon at an angle. it can be subdivided into;
– Unipennate - fibers insert at an angle along one side of the tendon e.g flexor pollicis longus
– Bipennate - fibers insert at angles along two sides of the tendon e.g. rectus femoris
– Multipennate - the tendon has many septa into which fibers insert e.g. deltoid

• Muscle names - muscles are named for the following:

– shape or geometry
– action
 Central Nervous System
• A collection of neurons and fiber tracts which collects, interprets, relays and initiates response
activity. It consists of the Brain and Spinal Cord

• Peripheral Nervous System - conduits for information to and from tissues and organs of the
body and the central nervous system; may be sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), or both.

• Cranial nerves - twelve pairs of nerves supplying structures of the head and neck and their
derivatives

• Spinal nerves - 31 pairs of nerves supplying those areas not supplied by cranial nerves. They
leave the vertebral canal by passing through the intervertebral foramina formed by adjacent
vertebra. They are named according to the vertebra associated with them.

• Typical spinal nerve - consists of mixed (sensory and motor) nerve fiber components. It
includes;
– dorsal root- sensory fibers from a spinal nerve to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord
– ventral root - motor fibers from the ventral horn of the spinal cord to the spinal nerve
– dorsal primary rami - mixed (sensory and motor) branches of spinal nerves which supply the deep
back muscles and the skin overlying the deep back muscles (a narrow band of skin on either side of
the median plane)
– ventral primary rami - mixed (sensory and motor) branches of spinal nerves which supply the rest
of the trunk wall and the four extremities
Spinal nerves
 Plexus
• Intermingling or anastomosing/web of nerve fibers from different
areas or spinal levels.

• They exists bilaterally and allow nerves to combine multiple

functioning nerves that serves to innervate various structures.

• Spinal nerve - a plexus of ventral primary rami from different levels

– Cervical plexus - C1-C4
– Brachial plexus - C5-T1
– Lumbar plexus - L1-L4
– Sacral plexus- L4-S4

• N/B: there may be variation in contributions to spinal plexuses.

Plexus
 Blood Vessels
• Arteries - blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart. It include the following:
– Elastic arteries - the largest of the arteries, these contain abundant elastic fibers in their walls; their function is
to stretch with the pressure of cardiac systole
– Muscular arteries - these are the distribution vessels; their walls consist predominantly of circular smooth
muscle
– Arterioles - the smallest of the arteries, they function to control blood pressure; they distribute and control
blood flow to the capillary beds

• Capillaries - the exchange vessels of the circulatory system, they consist of endothelium and a basal
lamina

• Veins – their characteristics includes;

– conduct blood back to the heart
– they begin as venules and drain into increasingly larger-sized vessels
– they form anastomotic networks
– they are more numerous than arteries
– they tend to be paired or in multiples
– paired veins accompanying an artery in the extremities are termed venae comitantes
– approximately eighty percent of blood at any one time is in veins
– veins of the extremities contain valves, which allow flow of blood in only one direction

• Lymphatics - vessels which conduct tissue fluid back into the blood vascular system
– Lymph vessels - extremely thin-walled channels from the tissues, they collect in increasingly larger vessels, the
largest of which are termed lymphatic ducts; they contain numerous valves and are afferent only, conducting
lymph toward the heart
– Lymph nodes - collections of lymphocyte producing tissues situated along lymph vessels at strategic sites; they
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