Mineral Exploration and Resource

Evaluation

(Geol 4123)
 Important!!!
• What is Economic Geology? Study of earth materials
that have economic value to human being.

• Ore Geology- Ore Genesis- Explain how the various types

of mineral deposits form within the earth’s crust.

• Mineral exploration-To know: how to locate, delineate,

estimate the resource and evaluation of these mineral
deposits.

• Mining- Extract the deposits/exploitations

 Outlines
• Introduction to Mineral Exploration and Resource
Evaluation
• Geological Prospecting/exploration
• Geochemical Prospecting/exploration 4 Methods
• Geophysical Prospecting /exploration
• Remote sensing, photo-geology and GIS

• Underground developments
• Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation
• evaluations/Feasibility study and mining project design
Mineral Exploration
1 Introduction to Mineral Exploration and Resource
Evaluation
1.1 Course definition and aim

• What Mineral Exploration ?

• It is a scientific investigation of the earth’s crust to determine if
there are mineral deposits/geological resource present that may be
commercially developed.

• The principal objective of Mineral Exploration is to find economic

mineral that will appreciably
- increase the value of a mining company's stock to the
shareholders on a continuing basis, or
- to yield a profit to the explorer.
 1.2 Historical backgrounds
• It has been argued that humans have always been scientists (i.e. they
have always been prospectors, explorationists, miners and
entrepreneurs).

• Native American prospectors discovered every native copper deposit

(7500 B.P.) eventually mined by Americans in the mid-late 1800’s.

• Another example is the making of “superglue” over 70,000 years ago

by people who lived in what is now South Africa.

• The glue was made out of red hematite and acacia gum. But making
the glue wasn't easy for the ancient Africans.

• Over 7000 years ago Egypt sent out expedition in search of gold,
turquoise, silver, tin, and lead.
 1.3 Definition of Common Terms:-

• Mineral Deposit or occurrence/Prospect: : rock body that contain

one or more minerals sufficiently above crystal abundance to have
potential economic value.

- in short it is potential mineral deposit, based on preliminary

exploration- geologically interest but not necessarily economic
interest

- Ore /Ore body/Ore Deposit: - refers to a specific volume of material

in a mineral deposit that can be mined and marketed at reasonable
profit.
• Mineral Resource/potential mineral deposit: The amount of ore in a
given deposit, usually quoted as the number of tones available at a
specific average grade.

- it includes those potentially, and technically feasible but not

necessarily economic interest

• Mineral Reserve/Ore Reserve: The geological estimate of the

resource is converted into reserves by technical and economic work
we commonly call pre-feasibility and feasibility studies. What are
these modifying factors’?
-this must be economically and technically feasible to extract.

- In common mining terminology an “ore deposit” by definition must

have an “Ore reserve” and may and may not have an additional
“Resources”.
• Grade/tenor:- is the average concentration of a valuable substance
in mineral deposits and usually given as weight percent or ppm.

• Cut-off grade: The lowest percentage at which deposits can be

economically worked. And usually defines the boundary of the
deposit.
• Ore mineral :- the minerals of economic interest in a
deposit.
• Gangue: the commercially worthless minerals associated
with economically valuable metallic minerals in an ore
deposit.
• Host rock: The rock within which the ore deposit occurs.
• Wall rock/Country rocks: Non-mineralized rocks adjacent
to an ore deposit.
 1.4 PRIMARY EXPRESSIONS OF ORE DEPOSITS
• A well known aspect of ore deposit expression is the ore-host
rock association.

• From a geochemical point of view, ore deposits represent

anomalous crustal accumulations of particular elements.

• These anomalies extend beyond the limits of the deposit to

varying degrees to form a geochemical dispersion halo.

• This pattern or halo can be formed at or close to the time of ore

formation (syndepositional) - primary dispersion pattern, or

- subsequently when the ore deposit is weathered

(postdepositional)- secondary dispersion pattern
Figure 4. 3. The generalized occurrence and possible relationships
between primary and secondary geochemical dispersion patterns
around ore deposits.
 Cont…
• The extent, shape and intensity of primary dispersion
patterns are a function of

• the ore-forming process (including the physico-chemical

conditions prevailing during transport and deposition),

• nature of the host rocks and types of controlling structures.

 1.5 Considerations during mineral exploration

The mineral industry has specific features to which we must pay

attention. It is characterized as:

• Complex

• Capital intensive

• Time taking

• Risky and

• High rate of return

This calls for careful planning.

1.6 Stages of exploration (process of developing
mineral resource)
 1.6 Stages of exploration (Exploration activity sequences in
general)
• The process of developing mineral resource will generally go through
the stages listed below.
I. Prospecting:
 Planning (i.e. selection of commodities, Organization and budgeting),

 Desk study/ Office work (i.e. target generation/area selection, data

collection and review existing data )
 Reconnaissance (i.e. conducting regional assessment and preliminary
result evaluation).

It is selection of small area (target generation) for detailed (follow-up)

exploration
II. Exploration

• Target Generation/ Initial follow-up

• This stage is dedicated to appraise or evaluate the targets

selected during reconnaissance.

• It involves:
- Detailed geologic mapping, Detailed geochemical sampling,

- Large scale ground geophysics, Pitting and trenching.

Limited shallow drilling,
Target Drilling/ Detail follow-up
• This stage is aimed at achieving an intersection of ore, or potential
ore.

• The testing will usually be by means of carefully targeted diamond or

rotary-percussion drill holes, but more rarely trenching, pitting,
sinking a shaft or driving.

• The purpose of detailed follow-up phase is to access the deposit in

3D:

• Size, Morphology, Quality, Maximum depth, Extension (along

dip and strike) etc
III. Resource Evaluation /feasibility study
• Feasibility study is a complex phase involving both geologic and non-
geologic issues.

• Activities to be conducted during feasibility stage include:

• Metallurgical test
• Mine design and pilot mining (test mining)
• Select suitable ore dressing method
• Geotechnical studies
• Select type of mining
• Economic analyses, and
• Make ready the deposit to mining.

• Based on the results either it may be escalate or discarded, sold or

joint ventured to another party.
1.6 Exploration activity sequence in general
IV. Development- construction and mine development

Activities include:

• Site construction

• Further drilling to see ore extension

• Shaft sinking or overburden removal

• Construction of processing plant

• Employment process, and

• Installing mine safety measures.

V. Extraction
• Extraction is removal of the ore material from the ground and
associated ore beneficiation activities.

VI. Mine closure

• After the mining life is over, the extraction activity will cease
unless more reserve is discovered through exploration efforts
around the discovered ore. This phase includes:
• Dismantling equipments
• Reduce number of workers, and
• Install/implement environmental rehabilitation &
protection measures.
•
 2. Geological Prospecting/Exploration

• It is process of production of a suitable geological map at different

scales (scales becoming more detailed as the exploration progresses).

• This is achieved by walking over the ground surface and accurately

recording the rock types, structural data, alteration, mineralization

• Samples will be collected for further mineralogical or textural study

by microscope techniques in the laboratory.

- Paragenesis and zoning are also studied using ore microscope

Photo micrographs under crossed
nicols (Rock identifications)
 Mineralization under Reflected-
Thin section micrographs showing light Microscope
the different alteration types that (photomicrographs showing
affected the rocks. relationships between opaque
minerals).
Paragenesis
 Geological Maps and x-sections
What is geological maps and x-sections?

 Graphical presentation of geological observations and interpretations

on a horizontal plane.
 Data are recorded and interpreted on a vertical rather than a horizontal
surface.

Why Make a geological Map and cross section?

Are means of portraying, documenting and presenting of exploration
works
Are fundamental tools for reporting to management,….
Are fundamental control document for all subsequent exploration
stages
Geological Maps of Dalul Area,
Ethiopia.
 Cont…
Choosing the Best Scale : Are generally two in type!

1.Large scale – maps with a small scale ratio 1:1000, 1:2500, etc
(>1:5000-Detail maps)

2. Small scale – maps with large scale ratios 1:100,000; 1:250,000 etc
(<1:5000-Reconnaissance Maps)

The quality depends on the experience and smartness of the

mapmaker.--Intelligent Mapper!
 Geological mapping includes:
a) Favorable rock types.

b) Topographic features/geomorphology of the area suggesting anomalous rock

conditions.

c) Structural intersections, breccia, fold axes.

d) Geological indications of a possible mineral body(mineralization) and rock

alteration.

a) Geological Cross sections

 Cross-sectional methods

Cross-sectional methods involve drawing sections across the ore body,

determining the areas of ore in each section and computing the final volume

by using the distance between sections.

It is useful in determining reserves of irregular bodies or bodies of variable

dip which cannot be calculated by ordinary plan methods.

Cross sectional method

Cross sectional method

Measuring and Recording Structures

• The most common traditional way has been in the form 042/23 NW
is a surface with strike of 42◦ that dips at 23◦ to the northwest- for
the attitude of a planar surface (i.e. such as a bedding plane,
cleavage, joint, vein etc., )

• The attitude of linear structure (i.e. lineation, fold) is measured and

recorded as its trend and plunge. A measurement of 76/067
represents a plunge of 76◦ towards 067◦.

• a lineation lies in a plane, then it can be measured as its pitch on that

plane. A pitch is the angle that a lineation makes with the horizontal,
measured in the plane that contains the lineation.
 Ch. 3. Geochemical Prospecting/exploration

• systematic measurement of the chemical properties/Measure the

content of specified metals of a naturally occurring materials.

• The purpose of the measurements is the location of geochemical

anomalies.

• It is the most productive of any methods used in mineral

exploration.
3.1 Phases of the geochemical exploration program
• An overall geochemical exploration program can be divided into the
following phases:

1. Planning

2. Sampling

3. Chemical analysis

4. Interpretation

5. Follow-up
• The field geologist is involved more in phases 1, 2, 4 and 5 while the
3rd phase is done by a chemical laboratory.
 1. Planning
• It is a mater of adopting the most effective techniques for the
commodity sought in the area of search – “Orientation Survey”.

- (i.e. field survey techniques, the analytical methods and

interpretations). And the arrange logistics of the major survey.
-

2. Sampling
• Surveys may be either reconnaissance or detailed

• What are to be sampled or surveyed ?

- Naturally occurring materials (i.e. rocks, sediments, soil, HMC, water,

Vegetation etc)
 Where are to be sampled ( Sites of sampling)??
• Surface
- surface outcrops of any possible rock types having ore indication
(Chip rock sampling?)
- old working and old dumps, stream sediments, soil, broken ore,
mineral concentrate
- bottom or the walls of pits and trenches,??
- Channel samples
• Underground:
• walls and /or roofs of adits, cross-cuts, drifts, raises, winzes and
sometimes shafts.
• In drill holes:
• Either core (Drill Core samples) or cuttings from bore holes
• During mining activities:
- they are taken as bulk samples from blasted material
Chip rock and Drill core samples
Plates
 Methods of sampling:
• There are many methods that depends on the
various types of surveys.
 Stream Sediment Sampling

Soils Survey

Heavy Mineral Samplings

Rock Sampling
 2.1 Stream Sediment Sampling/surveying:-

• It is one of the most widely used methods in regional geochemical

prospecting/reconnaissance.

• For the technique to work with maximum effectiveness, ideally the

following conditions should be met:

 The area should be one of active erosion with an incised drainage

pattern.

 The ideal sample point is on a primary drainage. Even very large

anomalies are rapidly diluted in secondary or tertiary streams (fig3.2)

 Only the active/fresh sediment on the stream bed should be sampled

and also from old sediment on the terraces and floodplains.
Fig.3.2 Typical stream sediment sampling distribution
employed for strategic exploration.
 Cont…
 sediment may have to be sieved (usually specified as –80 mesh,
180um/0.018mm)

- in order to collect a sample of suitable weight for assay (at least 50 g

but preferably 100 g is needed).

 Sieved samples are usually stored in small Kraft paper envelopes. All
samples should be clearly labeled by pens containing nonmetallic ink.

 As much detail as possible about the sample site should be recorded.

 Follow-up of anomalies will usually take the form of stream sediment

sampling upstream, along the anomalous drainage, (fig.3.3)
Zinc (ppm) in stream sediments of area covered. Background
range is 95-130 ppm and threshold approximately 130 ppm.
Figure . Stream sediment anomaly pattern (SME Mining & Engineering
Handbook).
 2.2 Soil sampling:-
• One of the most widely used methods of geochemical exploration for
the detailed, local assessment.

• To adequately interpret the results of a soil survey it is therefore

essential to have an understanding of the regolith.
• Regolith refers to the surface layer or layers of unconsolidated soil
and rock fragments that overly bedrock-(residual regolith or
transported regolith).

• The sample collected for assay is usually the fine silty or clayey (<120
μm).The sample is normally taken from clay rich, B soil horizons.

• It is collected on a rectangular pattern, generally with closer spacing

of sample sites along more widely spaced sample lines and for most
soil surveys 300-500g samples are sufficient (fig 3.4).
Fig. Soil Horizons
fig 3.4 : Results of soil sampling in area of stream
sediment sampling shown in Fig3.3. above
 2.3 Heavy Mineral Concentrate (HMC) Sampling:
• The heavy mineral concentrate (HMC) can be examined at the
collection site (panning) to identify and quantify its mineral content
(e.g. number of grains of gold).

• If required, the concentrate can then be collected into a Kraft paper

sample envelope for subsequent assay.

• Positive results from on-site examination can be immediately

followed up with upstream sampling until the source of the anomaly
is located.

• Heavy mineral sampling is widely employed to locate native

elements such as gold grains/naggets , platinum, diamonds,
magnetite, zirconium, ilmenite, rutile monazite and cassiterite.
Artisanal Miners Panning at Ruwa
Ruwa- Northwestren Ethiopia
 HMC
Panning by water Panning by wind
2.4 Rock surveys (also known as lithogeochemical surveys):-
• It is the techniques used for follow-up that it helps delineate the zone
of primary dispersion.

• although it has been applied with some success in regional

reconnaissance (e.g. delineation of mineralized felsic plutons and of
exhalative horizons).

• In general 1-3 kg samples are sufficient.

• Outcropping mineralisation requires a representative sample to be

taken across the entire exposed width of the mineralisation.

• Samples of adjacent unmineralised bedrock should also be taken and all

samples should be clearly labeled by pens containing nonmetallic ink.
• .
Primary and secondary geochemical dispersion patterns/haloes
around ore deposits).
Sample Spacing
• The distance between the sampling sites is
determined by:
o The objectives and detailed nature of the
investigation.
o The variability of mineralization

o The size of the deposit

3. SAMPLE PREPARATION, CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND RESULT
INTERPRITATIONS
SAMPLE PREPARATION:- is designed to produce a representative,
homogenous sub-sample from the original raw sample.
I. Rock samples
• Drying : wet drill core samples are always dried.
• Crushing :- using a special type jaw crushers (a nominal minus 10
mesh (1.7 mm)).
• crushed material can be split to two (e.g. 25g?) splits (riffle splitting)
– one for storage and the other for pulverizing.

• Pulverizing:-Mechanically splited sample is pulverized to at least

95% of minus 150 mesh (106 microns).
• The pulverizers and jaw crushers are cleaned with compressed air
and brushes and /or with barren quartzite between every sample. –
this minimize cross contamination!
Figure 3.5 @MU: A. rock cutter mashin B. crusher C.
Tungsten carbide milling machine D. powdered sample.
 II. Soil and stream sediment samples

• Drying:- it generally dried (at 110 °C) either in the sun, in low
temperature ovens, or freeze dried.

• lower drying temperatures (below 65°C) must be used for mercury

or other volatile components .

• Drying is generally followed by gentle disaggregation and sieving (<

0.06 mm fraction) to obtain the desired size fraction.

• If coarse sieve fractions are used for analysis, additional

pulverizing and/or crushing is regularly required.

• Sample shipment and packing:- Packing, labeling and Fill out and
enclose an analytical requisition form.
 SAMPLE ANALYSIS

• selecting the appropriate analytical methods to fit the objectives of the

project.

- Element suit, digestion/pretreatment method, detection limits, multielemt

analysis, optimum measurement area? etc.

• Most analysis is aimed at the determination of the elemental concentrations in

a samples and usually of trace elements and

- to some extent major elements/major oxide and isotopes using different

analytical methods (table 3.7).
Fig.3.6. Summary of main methods used in
exploration geochemistry.
 Laboratory Services through various
analytical methods
Code Description Application Sample No. Unit Price
PREP-41 Dry at <60°C/140°F, sieve sample to -180 All Bentonite and Red clay samples 4 (i.e. TB-02,03&04A; Ar-R-03) $1.60
micron (80 mesh). Retain both fractions. + $2.75 /kg

CRU-31 Fine crushing of rock chip samples to 70% Standard preparation procedure for 13 (i.e. all rock samples & DIR- $3.00
passing 2mm. samples 01, Ar-R-01 and Ar-R-03) + $0.55 /kg

SPL-21* Split sample using a riffle splitter. Standard splitting procedure. 13 (i.e. all rock samples & DIR- $2.00
01, Ar-R-01 and Ar-R-03) + $0.40 /kg

PUL-21 Pulverize entire sample to 85% Appropriate for samples up to 3kg. 13 (i.e. all rock samples & DIR- $10.90
01, Ar-R-01 and Ar-R-03)

ME-XRF26* Fused disc XRF, LOI by furnace or TGA for the major rock-forming elements 10 (i.e. all rock samples ) $33.15
(major-oxides)
ME-MS81™ Fused bead, acid digestion and ICP-MS For Rare Earth & Trace Elements 10 (i.e. all rock samples) $33.25
ME-4ACD81 Four acid digestion and ICP-AES For base metal and others 10 (i.e. all rock samples) $7.95
Add-on only
ME-XRF26* Fusion, XRF Industrial minerals 7 (i.e. TB-02,03&04; Dr-03, $33.15
DIR-02, DuR-01, and Ar-R-04)

ME-ICP86 Fusion, ICP-AES For calcite and agate 4 (i.e. DR-01B, DIR-01, Ar-R-01 $46.80
and Ar-R-03)
ME-IR06a Organic carbon and sulfide sulfur by HCI C (Organic) and S (Sulfide) 3 (i.e. TB-02,03&04A) $29.65
(25%) leach of carbonates and sulfates, Leco
furnace
S-GRA07 Solvent leach, gravimetric finish. S (Elemental) 1 (Dur-01) $35.80
XRDMP Mineral / Phase XRD- Specific mineral phase identification & 6 ( i.e. TB-02,03&04; Dr-03, By Quotation
High precision quantitative XRD DIR-02 & Ar-R-04)
Typical detection limits of elemental analysis
techniques
3.7 Geochemical Results-Rocks
 Interpretation the geochemical- data
• The object of geochemical exploration is to define significant
anomalies.

• Plotting the of geochemical values (table 4.--) using geostatistical

and Map methods helps define the following types of values:

• Background Values

• Threshold Value (mean +_STD ) and

• Anomalous Values:
Geochemical results
stastical
 Anomalous Maps-
• Geologists are used to thinking in terms of maps and the most useful
end product to compare geochemical data with geology and
geophysics

- is to summarize the data in map form using a gridding or GIS

package such as Geosoft Oasis Montaj, ArcView, or MapInfo.

• This will suffice to look for general mineralization trends.

• However, some care should be taken with the preparation of these

maps as it is extremely easy to prejudice interpretation
Geochemical contour map showing highest values in
red and lowest values in gray
Thematic geochemistry map showing highest values in red
and lowest values in blue for soil samples .
Anomalous maps for stream sediment survey

Back ground value 95-130

4. Geophysical Techniques of Mineral Exploration
INTRODUCTION
• Geophysical instruments play a large role in gathering geological
data.

• Geophysical techniques involve measuring on different physical

properties

• Geophysical surveys provide indirect information.

-In most cases, however, data from a combination of methods rather

than from simply one method yield a much clearer picture.

• Most measurements are made on the surface of the land or sea, but
some are taken from airborne, and still others are made underground.
 4.1. GRAVITY METHOD
• Gravity measurements define anomalous density within the Earth;

- By weighing a standard mass at a series of surface stations, the

gravimeter detects minute changes in gravity caused by crustal
density differences (fig. 4.1).

• Gravity anomalies are computed by subtracting a regional field from

the measured field, which result in gravitational anomalies that
correlate with source body density variations.

• Gravity and magnetic (discussed below) methods detect only lateral

contrasts in density or magnetization, respectively (fig. 4.1).

• In commercial applications, gravity surveying is rarely used in

reconnaissance. Do fined application, however, as a follow-up
 Classification of Geophysical
Methods
• These methods are
 Gravity

 Magnetic

 Electrical

 Electromagnetic

 Seismic and

 Radioactive
Geophysical survey application
 4.1. GRAVITY METHOD
• Gravity measurements define anomalous density within the Earth;

• As rocks show variation in composition and minerals, there is a

variation in the densities of the rocks (Table 1).

• ore bodies are thus often denser than their surroundings (Table 2)

- the gravimeter detects minute changes in gravity caused by crustal

density differences (fig. 4.1).

• Gravity anomalies are computed by subtracting a regional field from

the measured field,
- which result in gravitational anomalies that correlate with source
body density variations.
Fig 4.1 measuring masses and densities of the earth
materials.
 Cont…
• Gravity and magnetic (discussed below) methods detect only lateral
contrasts in density or magnetization, respectively (fig. 4.1).

• In commercial applications, gravity surveying is rarely used in

reconnaissance. Do fined application, however, as a follow-up
technique.

• Gravity high (Positive gravity anomalies) are associated with shallow

high density bodies, whereas gravity lows are associated with shallow
low density bodies.

• Thus, deposits of high-density chromite, hematite, and barite yield

gravity highs, whereas deposits of low-density halite, weathered
kimberlite, and diatomaceous earth yield gravity lows.
 Cont…
• Gravity investigation is useful in
 Oil and natural gas deposits-special success in this area

 Ore Deposits ( e.g. massive sulfides), salt dome, coal seams,

diatomaceous earth
 In case of engineering problems (mapping dam sites,
earthquake problems, tracing buried rivers channels)
 Limitations of gravity method

i) use only in the ground survey

ii) limited area coverage

iii) not very sensitive meters and

iv) poor contrast

 4.2 MAGNETIC METHOD
• Works on the basis of magnetic properties of minerals/rocks with
reference to Earth’s magnetic field (Table 1).

• The magnitudes magnetization depend on the quantity, composition,

and size of magnetic-mineral grains.

• Ferrous mineral (i.e. magnetite or BIF, Titanomagenetite, pyrrhotite

…) deposits can be detected by measuring local variations of the
geomagnetic field- magnetic anomalies.
 Cont…

• Magnetic method is widely used in large scale airborne

surveys/regional mapping due to its high efficiencies.

- And can also be used for the direct location of those ore bodies that
have a distinct magnetic signature.

Common problems
• Magnetic storms:
• Latitude
These and other limitation of magnetic prospecting: often has to be
carried out along with gravity and other methods.
(A) Nuclear proton precision magnetometer in
use
(B) Cesium vapour magnetometer
Aeromagnetic and gravity anomaly profiles along a Line
across SE of the Lizard.
 4.3 Electrical Methods
• Electrical methods are used to map/locate variations in the electrical
properties (resistivity or conductivity?) of the subsurface materials.

• They are more popular because they are successful in dealing with
varieties of problems like groundwater studies, subsurface structures
sulfide minerals and many others.

• Problems in interpretation result from the fact that many zones

within rocks, (other than bodies of massive or disseminated
sulphides), have low electrical resistance.

• So, Electrical method work best in the upper few hundred metres of
the surface with fresh unweathered rocks.
 Categories of Electrical Methods
• Different Techniques employed under this
include

1.Resistivity (DCR)

2.Spontaneous Polarization (SP)

3.Induced Polarization (IP)

4. Electromagnetic methods (EM)

 Resistivity (DCR)
• Electrical Resistance or Electrical Resistivity is resistance
by the material for the flow of current and is measured
in ohms per meter.

• Resistivity in rock vary widely but are normally within

the range from 0.1 to 1000 ohm-meters (Table 3).

• Most minerals are insulators, these resistivities are

commonly controlled by rock porosity and by the
salinity of the pore waters.
The common resistivity ranging for a number
of rocks and minerals
 Cont…
• The two fundamental requirements of any resistivity survey are:
i. the introduction of current and
ii. the measurement of voltage.

• current is injected directly into the ground from batteries or

generators injected through metal stakes to investigate the
subsurface.

• The conductivity of the ground is deduced from measurements of

the electrical potential difference (voltage) recorded between
pairs of electrodes placed at different points on the surface.
Arrays and geometric conversion factors for resistivity and IP surveys: (a)
Wenner array;
(b) pole–pole array; (c) Schlumberger array; (d) gradient array; (e) dipole–dipole
 Cont…
• Resistivity high = insulator = qtz, marble
• Apparent resistivity low = good conductor = e.g. pyrite,
galena etc

• In the case resistive subsurface body current lines

moves away from it and in the case of conductive
subsurface body, the current line moves towards it.

• Resistivities can thus be estimated for progressively

deeper levels, although, inevitably, resolution decreases
as electrode separations increase.
 Spontaneous Polarization (SP)
• It is a passive method, measures the differences in potentials in
natural ground/sources between any two points on the ground
surface. although exact physical processes by which some are
caused are still unclear.

• If a tabular sulphide ore body is present in the ground, oxidation

at the upper levels near induces greater chemical activity than at
lower.

• Hence a potential difference is induced; and a current flows from

upper level towards lower level.

• SP is utilized more extensively for borehole well logging rather

than surface applications.
Self potential profile across pegmatite dykes in gneiss (Semenov,
1980).
(A) Weiss SP anomaly in Ergani, Turkey, with the causative orebody shown
schematically in (B). Note that the axis of polarization is inclined uphill (after
Yungul (1950)).
Induced polarization method (IP)
• Flow of electric current in a rock mass can cause parts of it to
become electrically polarised. The effect is

• almost negligible in sandstones, quite marked in clays, and can be

very strong at the surfaces of graphite and metallic sulfides
•
• When the applied current is switched off, the voltage between the
potential electrodes takes a finite and measurable time (seconds to
several minutes)

- to decay to zero because the ground temporarily stores charge (i.e.

becomes polarised) and acts somewhat like a capacitor.
Macroscopic effect of grain polarisation over a disseminated
orebody.
 EM
• In electromagnetic methods, currents are induced in the ground by
the passage of electromagnetic waves ,

• The indirect nature of electromagnetic methods makes it possible to

take measurements from the ground and also from specially adapted
aircraft.

• Electromagnetic methods are also used extensively in the search for

deposits of copper, lead and zinc/sulfide minerals.-Dissminated
sulfides

• The other main area of application is in groundwater studies, where

the influence of water content and water salinity on the conductivity
of the ground can be utilised.
 Cont…

• Electromagnetic methods of airborne survey, are widely used to

map lithologic and structural features from which various mineral
exploration are possible (figure..).

• Problems in interpreting EM surveys arise because many host rocks

to mineralization can give a similar geophysical response to the
mineralization itself.

• For this reason, EM surveys have had most success in locating ore in
those parts of the world where fresh, unoxidized rocks occur close to
the surface- (best works 0-200).
 airborne electromagnetic survey
The coloured mesh shows
the topographic variation of
the ground surface.

The flat sheets are near-

surface geological units
with slightly elevated
concentrations of saline
groundwater.

The other objects with

elevated electrical
conductivity are associated
with base metal sulphide
mineralisation.
Airborne Survey of EM
4.4 Seismic Method
Seismic method makes use of the behavior of the rays (refraction
and reflection) with reference to solid, liquid and gas.

Seismic data generally can provide more detailed information

about subsurface materials than other methods; But have
comparatively limited use in mineral exploration.

Reasons: i) involved in high cost,

ii) most ore bodies lack coherent layering particularly in
igneous and metamorphic rocks.
iii) harder to acquire, analyze and interpret

But is used i) extensively in oil exploration,

ii) search for offshore placers
iii) sub-sea resources of bulk material e.g. sands, gravel.
iV) ores which occur in sedimentary rocks that have been
only gently folded or faulted.
 Cont…
• Seismic surveys utilize artificial energy sources, such as
explosives and water guns, to generate seismic/acoustic
waves.

• The waves are bounded back at interfaces of subsurface

layers, and their timings and amplitudes upon arrival back to
the surface were recorded by seismographs utilizing
geophones/hydrophones

• Seismic reflection, operated on density and elastic moduli of

subsurface materials, is the primary geophysical method
used in oil and gas exploration.
Seismic reflection
 Cont…

• Other geophysical methods, including gravity, magnetic and

sometimes EM, etc., are also used as subsidiary methods in oil and
gas exploration for delineating geological settings in large scales.

• The refraction method has been used in mineral investigations to

map low-velocity alluvial deposits such as those that may contain
gold, tin, or sand and gravel.

• Reflection seismic methods provide fine structural detail

• Refraction methods provide precise estimates of depth to lithologies

of differing acoustic impedance
 4.5 Radiometric method
• Natural radioactive decay produces α, β, and ϒ. These rays ionize
gas, which becomes electrically conductive as a result.
Radiation arises from
i. Decay of radioactive long-lived primeval elements
ii. Unstable daughter isotopes of lighter elements
• Application
• Geological applications- gamma-ray surveys are more effective
for geological applications
i) in locating alteration zones in acid and intermediate intrusions,
ii) in the search for, and evaluation of, phosphate and some placer
deposits,
iii) uranium deposits.
iV) Airborne soils mapping:
 Cont…
• Radiometric measurements are often carried out from surface of the
land, but some are taken from airborne, and still others are made
underground.

• Electrical and radioactive bore hole logging are most commonly used
at present.
Natural radioactive decay produces α, β, and ϒ.

alpha particles: (consisting of 2 neutrons & 2 protons bound together),

beta particles: (high-energy electrons), and

gamma rays : (very high frequency electromagnetic waves which

quantum
theory allows us to treat as particles).

Types of
radiation
 5. Remote Sensing and GIS methods of Exploration

• What is Remote Sensing?

• Data gathering systems used are Photographs or Electronic scanners

or sensors.

• Remote sensing data gathering systems using sensors two types:

Passive and active sensors

• Any system which can record the intensity and wavelengths of the
reflected light and reproduce the data as an image is known as
reflectance imagery/remote sensing imagery
(aerial photographs, satellite and radar imageries)
Aerial photography

• Air photographs have the advantage of being relatively cheap to

collect and, since they are taken at low altitude, can show great
detail.

• Resolution of ground features depending on the height of the aircraft

above the ground and the quality of the camera optics used.

• Aerial photography has been used for much longer than satellite
imagery and increasing use of satellite imagery is being made
because it shows large areas on the surface of the earth.
panchromatic aerial photograph s(B&W) Differen types of stereoscope.
 Satellite imagery:
• Two approaches are used to extract geological information from
satellite imagery
Spectral and Photo-geological approach

• Photo-geological approach- an overhead view of landscape on which

geological features can be directly identified.
•
• Spectral approach: Computer analysis and manipulation of specific
reflectance bands.
 Cont…

Small Satellite Landsat Thematic Mapper image

 Geological structurs
Sheep Mountain anticline
/synclinal in Wyoming (USA?) Negash Geo-synclinal
Landsat-5 ETM composite image of Land sat image of Dalul
the northern Afar Depression Area
Radar Imagery
• A radar imaging system has three main functions: It transmits the
microwave signal toward the scene,

- receives a portion of that transmitted energy as backscatter from

the scene, and then observes the strength and time delay of the
returned signal.

• Some of this imagery is flown with an aircraft while some of it is

onboard satellites or the US Space Shuttle.

• It produces an image much like a photograph that also shows earth

structure at the surface (fig..).
 Cont…
• Once an area is selected and the RS imagery obtained, - the
exploration geologist utilizes mapping techniques to produce
a geologic map.

- Air photo or satellite image interpretation needs to be carried

out before, during and after the field phases of the mapping
process
GIS and Exploration Databases

• GIS can help in many aspects of the mineral exploration activities:

• Data collection and storage- (i.e. digitalization)

• Customizing and integrating- Raster images, such as Remote sensing

imagery or geophysical images can then be displayed in GIS and overlaid
with vector data such as geology, geochemical samples.

• Analysis/interpretation- ( querying, buffering…….).

• Reporting- (fig 5….)

Data overlay and buffering
 Important
• use to advance the mineral exploration process while saving time and
money and increasing profitability and efficacy.

• bands and band ratios do not indicate the occurrence of a mineral

with absolute certainty or with any idea of quantity, so ground
truthing and setting appropriate thresholds is essential.

• Geology and structural maps, geochemistry, radiometrics, and any

other available data should be used in conjunction with ASTER/
reflectance imagery for best results.
Spectral satelite mapping
 6. Underground Exploration
(Pitting, Trenching, or Drilling)
 6. Underground Exploration
(Pitting, Trenching, or Drilling)
• Pitting:- (shallow, square shaped holes )

• Pitting is usually employed to test shallow, extensive, flat-lying

bodies of mineralization.

• Pits dug to depths of 3–4 m, with a 1 m square are common

Trenching:- (longer, linear holes and variable in depth)

Trenches are usually employed to expose steep dipping bedrock

buried below shallow overburden, and are normally dug across
the strike of the rocks or mineral zone being tested.
• Excavated depths of up to 4 m and 1m in width are common..

Stripping

• In some cases, it may be possible to completely strip shallow

unconsolidated overburden to expose large areas of bedrock.

• This is done by bulldozing and/or by sluicing with high-pressure

water hoses.
 Cont…
Pit Trench
Location of trenches at VTEM09,
looking NW
 Cont…
• Despite their relatively shallow depth, pits and trenches have
some distinct advantages over drilling:

- detailed geological logging can be carried out,

- large andundisturbed samples collected.

• Pits and trenches can be dug by bulldozer, by excavator, by

back-hoe or even by labor

• The exposed bedrock due to pitting, trenching and trapping

can be geologically mapped, logged and sampled.

• Scales from 1:50 to 1:500 are appropriate for (trench and pit?)
Drillings
• There are a variety of drilling techniques ( i.e. auger drilling, rotary percussion
drilling and diamond drilling) which can be used to sink a borehole into the
ground. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, in terms of the

- depth to which it can drill,

- the type of sample returned (quality & volume),

- the costs involved,

- penetration rates achieved

- logistics and environmental considerations.

Components of drilling machines
A) Auger drilling (hand and power auger/ truck-mounted)
• The drilled material can be collected in two ways. bucket auger and
spiral screw thread

• The advantages of auger drilling include low operating costs, fast

penetration rates in suitable formations, no contamination of
samples by fluids but low levels of geological knowledge

• Auger drilling is restricted to generally soft unconsolidated material

or weak, weathered rock- few tens of meters (<60m) down and used
to sample placer deposits

• Hand augers are also widely used as a reconnaissance tool in heavy-

mineral sand exploration, particularly in rugged, inaccessible or rain-
forest terrain.
 Cont… Auger Drilling
Hand auger power auger
 B) Rotary Percussion Drilling (RC, Air Core and RAB)
Reverse circulation (RC):-

• Dual-tube RC drilling,

• Compressed air/water/fluids passes down to the drill bit along the

annular space between an inner tube and outer drill rods to

• Return to surface carrying the rock cuttings up the centre of the

inside rod (fig6.).

• RC rigs are nowadays specified in most rotary percussion drilling

programmes. Why?
 Cont…
• They are powerful machines capable of penetrating much deeper
(500 metres) and through harder rock and drill a large-diameter
hole (100– 200 mm).

• RC drilling is slower and costlier but achieves better penetration

than RAB or air core drilling;

• It is cheaper than diamond coring and is thus preferred for most

mineral exploration work.
 Cont…

collecting the rock cuttings from a

Cut way sections reverse circulation (RC) drill
Schematic diagram and photograph showing a reverse
circulation drill.
 Air Core Drilling
• Air core is a specialized RC drill procedure where a small annular bit
(blade bit) is used to cut a solid core of rock from relatively soft or
easily broken material (up to 200m down).

• Air Percussion produces lower quality samples because the cuttings

are blown up the outside of the rods and can be contaminated from
contact with other rocks.

• Rotary Air Blast (RAB) Drilling

• The long sample return from drill bit to the surface along the outside
of the rods may produce contamination from the walls of the hole.

• The rigs are used as a geochemical sampling tool to quickly drill

shallow holes (up to 60 m depth) in weathered rocks.
 C) Diamond drilling
• Diamond drilling is much slower than reverse circulation (RC) drilling
due to the hardness of the ground being drilled.

• Drilling of 1200 to 1800 metres is common and at these depths,

ground is mainly hard rock.

• Diamond drilling provides a large-volume, uncontaminated sample

and is also the most expensive technique.

• Diamond rigs need to drill slowly to lengthen the life of drill bits and
rods, which are very expensive.
Cutaway section through a diamond drill bit, drill rods and
core barrel
Drilling of an Inclined Diamond
Hole
Cement Marker Denoting the Location of
Drill Hole Collars
 Well logging/borehole logging
• It is the practice of making a detailed record (a well log)
of the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole.

• The log may be based either on geological logs or

geophysical logs
 Geological logging
• Once a rod is removed from the hole, the core sample is then
removed from the rod and laid out in core trays.

• At a drill site initial logging is done and then the core is moved
to a field base, where a more detailed examination of the core
takes place at a later date.
•
- Geologist emphasis on structure, lithology, alteration
and mineralization
- Other details such as core recovery and the location of
excessive core loss (when say >5%) has to be examined too.

• Relogging was necessary to rationalise the variation inherent

with multiple geologists logging core.
Core Handling & Sampling
Photographs
 Cont…
• These data are plotted on graphical core logs (Figure ) and
used as an aid in interpreting the geology of the current and
next holes to be drilled.

• By performing this study it greatly aided correlations between

sections lithological, but also geochemically through assaying
(table).
An example of the use of graphical scale logging of core
Adi Angoda Diamond Drill Holes
 7. Mineral Resource Estimates
A) Basic concepts of mineral resources and reserves
 Cont…
• Resource: The amount of ore in a given deposit, usually quoted as the number of tones
available at a specific average grade.

*Measured – is that part of a Mineral Resource for which tonnage, densities, shape,
physical characteristics, grade and mineral content can be estimated with a high level of
confidence.

** Indicated – is that part of a Mineral Resource for which tonnage, densities, shape,
physical characteristics, grade and mineral content can be estimated with a reasonable
level of confidence.

*** Inferred – is that part of a Mineral Resource for which tonnage, densities, shape,
physical characteristics, grade and mineral content can be estimated with a low level of
confidence.
 Cont….
• Mineral Reserve: “the economically mineable part of a Measured
or Indicated Mineral Resource demonstrated by at least a
Preliminary Feasibility Study.

• A ‘Probable Mineral Reserve’ is the economically mineable part of

an Indicated and, in some circumstances, Measured Mineral
Resource.

• A ‘Proved Mineral Reserve’ is the economically mineable part of a

Measured Mineral Resource.
Dalul Potash
 B) Computations of resources
• Three methods: Conventional, geostastical and computational

• Basic Parameters (Physical & Chemical)

• Thickness and area - quantitative indicator of form, and volume of

the mineral body;

• Grade –the qualitative indicatores of values their distribution in the

diposit and
•
• Weight factor - indicator for tonnage computations.
Cont…Tonnage and grade calculation methods
Tonnage Calculation - Conventional methods
• T = A x Th x BD
• Where T = tonnage (in tonnes), A = area of influence on a plan or
section in km2, Th = thickness of the deposit within the area of
influence in meters, BD = bulk density.

• The area of influence is derived from a plan or section of the

geologically defined deposit.

• The conventional methods commonly used for obtaining these areas

are: thickness contours, polygons, triangles, cross-sections, or a
random stratified grid (Fig7.2).
Conventional methods of estimating the area of influence of a
sample using (a) isopachs, (b) polygons, (c) triangles, (d)
cross-sections, or (e) a random stratified grid
 Examples
Trapezoid Formulas
 Cont…
• These methods have various disadvantages that relate to the
assumptions on which they are based:

• In most deposits thickness and grade vary from place to place in

greater degree than the weight factor.

• Errors in estimation of thickness (or grade) can therefore be

made.

• The area of influence of the sampling data

• Any correlation of mineralization do not take into consideration

Figure 7.2: Details of the construction of a polygonal area to which a single
contained grade is applied (i.e., the contained sample grade is extended to the
polygon). Circles are data points; dashed lines join adjacent data points and form
Delaunay triangles; thick lines defining a polygon (Voronoitesselations) are
perpendicular to the dashed lines and divide the dashed lines into two equal
segments
 Weight factor or Bulk density or Specific gravity

• It is a measure of mass per unit volume of rock and may be

expressed, for example, as metric tonnes per cubic meter (t/m3).

• This includes the volume of the pore spaces and moisture content. It
is obtained by laboratory measurement of field samples (fig).

• There are some commonly used density terms

Description of some commonly used density terms (adapted
from Lipton & Horton, 2014).
 Grade calculation- Conventional
methods
• It is the geologist’s responsibility to calculate a composite
grade or quality value over a predetermined interval from the
samples taken from the cores or channels.

• Grade computation of a mineral body is critical and important

operation that can be done by various formulas (table 7.1):
Where G =weighted average grade of
each borehole on that bench, G =grade
of each core sample, L =length of
sample

when compositing several core

samples for a particular bench in a
proposed open pit, length of sample is
used.
• Where A =area of influence of each
polygon.

• When samples are to be composited

from, say, core, and the rocks are of
significantly different densities, then the
weighting factor should have bulk
density (BD) included.
Example
• Case Description: A nickel laterite
deposit has been sampled by pits. The
pits are 25 m apart. Each pit has
therefore an area of influence of 12.5
m to each side.
• Area influence of each pit= = 1250
m2

• Two different types of ore with

different densities were encountered
in the pits (Fig. ): the laterite (L) has
an in situ density of 1.25, the
decomposed serpentinite (ZS) has an
in situ density of 1.0 g/cm3.

• Question: Calculate the ore

Resource??
ii. Pit B: (4x1.3x 1.25 +3x3.5x1.0)/(4x1.25+3x1.0)=2.125

The corrected once are 11250t with 1.96%Ni for Pit A.

10,000t with 2.125%Ni for Pit B

Final Tonnage:- 21250 with 1.98%Ni

 Errors
• The errors in reserve computations may be
divided into three groups:

-Errors of interpritation (often labeled geologic),

-Technical, and analytical errors.
 Assignment. Calculate the weighted mean for the drill
intersections in barite deposit presented in Table 7.1.
 8. Feasibility study

• Feasibility studies, the final stage in the process, that assesses

factors of technical, environmental, socio-economic and
economic issues.

• Evaluation of these properties lead to a high degree of

confidence in the decision process - intelligent and
strategic decisions regarding a project-.

• There are two distinct phases in the assessment (pre-&full

feasibility) and the type of study will differ depending on

- the quality of information available, cost of the study or the

level of decision to be made.
 Prefeasibility studies

• Prefeasibility studies are usually undertaken once a mineral

resource has been identified.

• It is at this stage that one should ensure that the project is

indeed feasible and/or identify areas requiring further detailed
studies.

• There are four common reasons for conducting a prefeasibility

study:

• As a base to justify a major exploration programme,

• As part of due diligence work by a potential purchaser

• To determine whether to proceed with a full feasibility study

• As a means to determine issues requiring further attention.

-------------------------------- -----------------------------------
Capital and operating costs are estimated to an accuracy of 15–
30%,

• These studies are usually completed by a small multidisciplined

group of experienced technical people.

• Assumptions should be realistic rather than optimistic and

conclusions qualified wherever necessary.

• Main features of a prefeasibility study are as: mining type,

metallurgical, environmental, Capital and operating cost
estimate …
Full feasibility study
• The feasibility study confirms and maximizes the value of the
preferred technical and business option identified in the
prefeasibility study stage.

• The study should support the raising of finances for the project
from banks or other sources, and provide a basis for detailed
designs and construction.

• Capital and operating costs are estimated to an accuracy of

10–15%, including realistic contingencies
 Cont…
• The full feasibility study should determine:

 Ore reserves, capital budget and

 Schedule for the project, Market estimates,

 Cash flow study, Risk and sensitivity analysis…

• Feasibility studies are also more focused on the

business side of things than prefeasibility studies.
Mine design
• mining method, mine infrastructure requirements…

Mineral processing:
It is important that the treatment process be designed to handle
maximum concentrations of minerals.

Infrastructure
• Infrastructure requirements will need to be assessed and designed to
a level in keeping with the study accuracy, and usually addresses the
following:
• Power supply • Water supply
• Internal roads • Plant infrastructure
• Permitting and authorities.
Environmental
• The development of any mine will require an environmental impact
assessment (EIA).

• The EIA consists of mitigation, management, monitoring and

institutional measures to be taken to eliminate adverse
environmental and social impacts.

• Capital and operational costs

• Estimates of the project capital and operating costs are based on the
level of the study.
Written budget on full feasibility studies
Socioeconomic
• concerns may include but are not limited to potential impacts on

- population (population increase, movement, or relocation in

response to the project),

- public services and facilities, housing supply, employment,

education (e.g. student population increase),

- local, state and Federal tax revenues and expenditures,

transportation, and quality of life (Berger, 1991).
Marketing and evaluation

• The projected revenue or return of the mining venture is the

ultimate criteria for determining the feasibility of any mining
venture.

• If the return isn’t high enough, then an extensive study is not

justified.

• The first level at which revenue becomes critical is the exploration

phase.
• If the rate of return isn’t sufficient at that point, there is no point in
continuing on with the project.

• In addition to the financial evaluation, a risk assessment should be

carried out on the major parameters, including metal price, working
 Revenue and expenditure of a proposed mining operation
mathematical expression.

• Cash flow = cash into the project (revenue) minus cash leaving the
project (expenditure)

• Cash flow = Revenue - expenditure (i.e. mining cost + ore

beneficiation costs + transport cost + sales cost + capital cost +
interest payments +taxes).

• The ultimate success or failure of a project is measured by the

money earned
 Financing mining projects

• The study should support the raising of finances for the project from:

• Banks or any other source (e. government)- Debt

• The shareholders of the mine company- Equity –(the value of

shares)

• The company itself finance other projects- Retained profits