Unit II:
Sensor &
Transducer
MANOJ KUMAR YADAV
SENSORS
SENSOR is a device that detects a change in a
physical stimulus and turns it into a signal which can
be measured or recorded
Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical
phenomenon (temperature, displacement, force,
etc.) produces a proportional output signal
(electrical, mechanical, magnetic, etc.).
TRANSDUCERS
It is a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form Primary Energy
Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, chemical,
etc.
The word “Transducer” is the collective term used for
both Sensors which can be used to sense a wide range of
different energy forms such as movement, electrical signals,
radiant energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc,
and Actuators which can be used to switch voltages or currents.
Example
Common Sensors and
Transducers
Quantity being Measured Input Device (Sensor) Output Device (Actuator)
Light Dependant Resistor (LDR) Lights & Lamps
Light Level Photodiode LED’s & Displays
Photo-transistor Fibre Optics
Solar Cell
Thermocouple
Temperature Thermistor Heater
Thermostat Fan
Resistive Temperature Detectors
Strain Gauge Lifts & Jacks
Force/Pressure Pressure Switch Electromagnet
Load Cells Vibration
Potentiometer Motor
Position Encoders Solenoid
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch Panel Meters
LVDT
Tacho-generator AC and DC Motors
Speed Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler Stepper Motor
Doppler Effect Sensors Brake
Carbon Microphone Bell
Sound Piezo-electric Crystal Buzzer
Loudspeaker
SELECTION CRITERIA
• Variables measured and application.
• The nature of precision and the sensitivity required for the
measurement.
• Dynamic range.
• Level of automation.
• Complexity of the control system and modeling requirements.
• Cost, size, usage, and ease of maintenance.
Classification Sensor Type
CLASSIFICATIONSignal Characteristics Analog
Digital
Power Supply Active
Passive
Mode of Operation Null type
Deflection type
Subject of Measurement Acoustic
Biological
Chemical
Electric
Mechanical
Optical
Radiation
Thermal
Others
ANALOGUE SIGNAL Analog sensors typically
have an output, which is
proportional to the
variable being measured.
The output changes in a
continuous way
output is normally
supplied to the computer
using an analog-to-digital
converter.
DIGITAL SIGNAL Digital refers to a
sequence of discrete
events.
Each event is separate
from the previous and
next events.
Do not require any
converters when
interfaced with a
computer monitoring
system.
ACTIVE SENSORS
Active sensors require external
power for their operation.
The external signal is modified
by the sensor to produce the
output signal.
Ex. strain gauges and resistance
thermometers.
PASSIVE SENSORS In this the output is
produced from the input
parameters.
The passive sensors (self
generating) produce an
electrical signal in response to
an external stimulus.
Ex. piezoelectric,
thermoelectric, and
radioactive.
P A
INPUT & OUTPUT SENSORS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY
Range / span Errors Accuracy Sensitvity
Nonlinearity
Hysteresis Repeatability Stability
Error
Dead band/ Output
Resolution
Time impedance
RANGE/ SPAN
The range of the sensor is the
maximum and minimum values of
applied parameter that can be
measured.
Span is the difference between the
lowest and the actual reading or output
signal of a measurement device
ERROR
Error is the is the deviation of the
measured value from the actual value
of the property being measured.
ERROR= MEASURED VALUE – TRUE
VALUE
ACCURACY
The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum difference
that will exist between the actual value (which must be
measured by a primary or good secondary standard)
and the indicated value at the output of the sensor.
The accuracy can be expressed either as a percentage of
full scale or in absolute terms.
SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in output
for a given change in input, usually a unit change in input.
Sensitivity represents the slope of the transfer function.
Also is used to indicate sensitivity to other environment
that is not measured.
Example: sensitivity of resistance measurement to
temperature change
HYSTERESIS ERROR
The hysteresis error of a sensor is the maximum difference in
output at any measurement value within the sensor's specified
range when approaching the point first with increasing and then
with decreasing phenomena.
• Caused by electrical or mechanical systems
– Magnetization
– Thermal properties
– Loose linkages
• If temperature is measured, at a rated temperature of 50C, the output
might be 4.95V when temperature increases but 5.05V when
temperature decreases.
• This is an error of ±0.5% (for an output full scale of 10V in this
idealized example).
NON-LINEARITY ERROR
Nonlinearity is defined as the
maximum deviation from the ideal
linear transfer function.
Nonlinearity must be deduced from
the actual transfer function or from
the calibration curve
REPEATABILITY
Also called reproducibility: failure of the sensor to
represent the same value under identical
conditions when measured at different times.
• usually associated with calibration
• given as percentage of input full scale of the maximum
difference between two readings taken at different times under
identical input conditions.
STABILITY
Stability deals with the degree to which
sensor characteristics remain constant over
time.
Changes in stability, also known as drift, can
be due to components aging, decrease in
sensitivity of components, and/or a change
in the signal to noise ratio
DEAD BAND/ TIME
• It is the lack of response or insensitivity of a device over a
specific range of the input.
• In this range which may be small, the output remains
constant.
• A device should not operate in this range unless this
insensitivity is acceptable.
Dead Zone
RESOLUTION
• Resolution: the minimum increment in stimulus to which the
sensor can respond. It is the magnitude of the input change
which results in the smallest observable output.
• Example: a digital voltmeter with resolution of 0.1V is used to
measure the output of a sensor. The change in input
(temperature, pressure, etc.) that will provide a change of 0.1V
on the voltmeter is the resolution of the sensor/voltmeter
system.
• In digital systems generally, resolution may be specified as
1/ 2N (N is the number of bit.)
OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
• Output impedance: ratio of the rated output voltage and short circuit current of the port (i.e. current
when the output is shorted)
•output impedance is important for interfacing Example: 500 sensor (output impedance)
• connected to a processor
– b. Processor input impedance is infinite
– c. Processor input impedance is 500
STATIC AND DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY SENSORS
DISPLACEMENT
SENSORS
• CONCERNED WITH THE MEASUREMENT OF AMOUNT BY WHICH SOME OBJECT
HAS BEEN MOVED
UNIT-II
POSITION SENSORS
• CONCERNED WITH THE DETERMINATION OF POSITION OF SOME OBJECT W.R.T.
SOME REFERENCE POINT
PROXIMITY SENSORS
• USED TO DETERMINE WHEN AN OBJECT HAS MOVED WITHIN SOME PARTICULAR
CRITICAL DISTANCE OF THE SENSOR
UNIT-II POTENTIOMETER SENSORS
POTENTIOMETER SENSORS
UNIT-II STRAIN GAUGE ELEMENT
∆R/R=Gℰ
UNIT-II STRAIN GAUGE ELEMENT
UNIT-II STRAIN GAUGE ELEMENT
UNIT-II STRAIN GAUGE ELEMENT
APPLICATION
UNIT-II CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR
UNIT-II CAPACITIVE ELEMENT
UNIT-II PUSH PULL DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
UNIT-II LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
UNIT-II EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSORS
APPLICATION
INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH
INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH
APPLICATION
HALL EFFECT SENSORS
APPLICATION
UNIT-II PNEUMATIC SENSORS
APPLICATION
UNIT-II PROXIMITY SWITCHES
VELOCITY & MOTION
SENSORS
VELOCITY
LINEAR ANGULAR
INCREMENTAL ENCODER
• An, incremental encoder, is an electromechanical motion
detector. It has two output signals, A and B, which issue pulses
when the device moves. Together, these signals indicate the
direction of movement and distance traveled.
IE
LINEAR ROTARY
LINEAR & ROTARY ENCODER
The pulses are quadrature-encoded, meaning that when the
encoder is moving at constant speed, the signals are square
waves. with equal on and off times.
RESOLUTION
The resolution of an incremental encoder is a measure of the precision of the
position information it produces. Encoder resolution is typically specified in
terms of the number of A (or B) pulses per unit displacement or, equivalently,
the number of A (or B) square wave cycles per unit displacement. In the case of
rotary encoders, resolution is specified as the number of pulses per revolution
(PPR) or cycles per revolution (CPR), whereas linear encoder resolution is
typically specified as the number of pulses issued for a particular linear traversal
distance (e.g., 1000 pulses per mm).
INCREMENTAL ENCODER
Incremental encoders do not indicate the location or position of
a mechanical system; they only report incremental movements.
To determine position, it is necessary to send the
encoder signals to an electronic circuit known as an
incremental encoder interface
The interface keeps track of position by counting encoder pulses. It counts up
when the quadrature phase difference is positive and down when the
difference is negative, or vice versa.
Speed measurement
Radar speed
Radar bearing
When the radar detects an object, the target bearing is indicated by the pulse count .
Pipeline Inspection
TACHOGENERATOR
The major principle for tachogenerator is
that the relative motion between a
Magnetic field & a conductor results the
voltage in that conductor.
Tachogenerators are used for measurement of
angular velocity
There are mainly three types of
Tachogenerators :
• Variable Reluctance tachogenerator
• A.C. Tachogenerator
• D.C. Tachogenerator
TACHOGENERATOR
A tachogenerator is a shaft-driven, electrical generator with a
variable frequency output, which is related to speed. These devices
are very rugged, but produce a relatively low output signal.
TACHOGENERATOR
CONSTRUCTION
• An Armature is rotating type &
this magnet is fixed type.
• Armature is coupled to a
machine whose velocity is to be
measured.
CONSTRUCTION
• It consists of commutator and
brushes is connected to
armature.
• Output is connected to Moving
Coil (MC) type Voltmeter
OPERATION
• When the armature is stationary
there is no relative motion
between the magnetic field and
the armature winding.
• Hence the output voltage is Zero
OPERATION
• As the armature speed increases the
relative motion also increases.
• The output voltage is induced in the armature
winding.
• The magnitude of this voltage is
propotional to the speed of armature.
• A commutator and brush are connected in the
armature to give the DC output voltage.
OPERATION
• The polarity of output voltage
indicates the direction of rotation.
• This output voltage is measured with
the help of moving coil voltmeter
calibrated in terms of speed.
ADVANTAGE
• The main advantage of this
meter is the direction of rotation
is indicated by the polarity of the
output voltage
DISADVANTAGE
• The Commutator and
Brushes require periodic
maintainence
• The output voltage is non - linear
CONSTRUCTION
• It consists of :-
• Permanent Magnet
• Coil (Stator)
• Rectfier Bridge
• Moving Coil (MC) Voltameter
OPERATION
• When the magnet rotates in the
stationary coil an AC voltage is generated
• The amplitude and the frequency of this
voltage are both propotional to the speed
of rotation.
• Thus either the amplitude or frequency
of the induced voltage may be used as a
measure of rotational speed
OPERATION
• The output voltage AC
Tachogenerator is rectified and is
measured with MC meter
ADVANTAGES
• Maintenance free due to absence
of brushes and commutators
DISADVANTAGE
• Large number of poles are required
• Required high input impendence display
devices
PYROELECTRIC SENSORS
FORCE SENSORS
STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL
Strain gauge load cells usually feature four strain gauges in
a Wheatstone bridge configuration, which is an electrical
circuit that balances two legs of a bridge circuit.
The force being measured deforms the strain gauge in this
type of load cell, and the deformation is measured as
change in electrical signal.
STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL
FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
DIAPHRAGMS
DIAPHRAGM WITH STRAIN GAUGE
PRESSURE SENSOR ELEMENT
•V2.0 version added power conversion module
and IO port level conversion circuit for the 3.3V
MCU and 5V chip
•Resolution:< 1 feet /0.3 M
•Pressure range: 20 - 110 kPa
•Compensation, direct reading (don't need
software):
•20bit pressure measurement (Pascal)
•20bit measurements of height (metres)
•12bit temperature measurement
•Onboard intelligence
•Sampling rate: maximum 128 Hz
PEIZOELECTRICITY
PEIZOELECTRIC SENSORS
When pressure is applied to a crystal, it is elastically
deformed. This deformation results in a flow of electric
charge (which lasts for a period of a few seconds).
The resulting electric signal can be measured as an
indication of the pressure which was applied to the
crystal.
These sensors cannot detect static pressures, but are
used to measure rapidly changing pressures resulting
from blasts, explosions, pressure pulsations (in rocket
motors, engines, compressors) or other sources of
shock or vibration.
•Pressure ranges of up to 8,000 bar
•Monocrystals of gallium phosphate GaPO4
•Highly dynamic recording of pressure up to 50 kHz
•High resolution of approx. 100 Pa
•High temperature resistance
Tactile Sensor
A tactile sensor is a device that measures information arising from
physical interaction with its environment. Tactile sensors are
generally modeled after the biological sense of cutaneous touch
which is capable of detecting stimuli resulting from mechanical
stimulation, temperature, and pain.
ROBOTS
USE IN MEDICAL FIELD
Ultrasonic Sensors
LIQUID FLOW SENSORS
Orifice Plate Flowmeter
Orifice Plate Flowmeter
Turbine Flow Meter
Clamp-On Liquid Flow Meters
No pipe modification necessary
Monitor flow of water, oil, chemicals, and more
Extremely simple installation
LEVEL SENSORS
Level sensors detect the level of liquids and other fluids and fluidized solids,
including slurries, granular materials, and powders that exhibit an upper free
surface.
The level measurement can be either continuous or point values. Continuous
level sensors measure level within a specified range and determine the exact
amount of substance in a certain place, while point-level sensors only
indicate whether the substance is above or below the sensing point.
Generally the latter detect levels that are excessively high or low.
Differential Pressure Type
Paddle Level Sensor
Temperature Sensors
A temperature sensor is an electronic device that measures
the temperature of its environment and converts the input data
into electronic data to record, monitor, or
signal temperature changes
Temperature sensors are a simple instrument that measures the
degree of hotness or coolness and converts it into a readable unit.
Bimetallic Strip
Two Types: Snap Action & Creeper
Thermistor (THERM-ally
sensitive res-ISTOR)
A thermistor is a special type of resistor which changes its
physical resistance when exposed to changes in
temperature.
Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that
is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the
temperature, and of course there are some which have
a Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that their
resistance value goes UP with an increase in temperature.
Resistive Temperature
Detectors (RTD)
RTD’s are precision temperature sensors made
from high-purity conducting metals such as
platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and
whose electrical resistance changes as a function
of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor.
Resistive temperature detectors have positive
temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the
thermistor their output is extremely linear
producing very accurate measurements of
temperature.
Thermocouple
One junction is kept at a constant
temperature called the reference
(Cold) junction, while the other
the measuring (Hot) junction.
When the two junctions are at
different temperatures, a voltage
is developed across the junction
which is used to measure the
temperature sensor as shown
below.
LIGHT SENSORS
• Light Sensors are photoelectric devices that convert
light energy (photons) whether visible or infra-red light
into an electrical (electrons) signal
Photodiode
A photodiode is a PIN structure or p–n junction. When
a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it creates
an electron–hole pair. This mechanism is also known as
the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in
the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length
away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction
by the built-in electric field of the depletion region. Thus
holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward
the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The total
current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark
current (current that is generated in the absence of light)
and the photocurrent, so the dark current must be
minimized to maximize the sensitivity of the device
Phototransistor
Photoresistor
Magnetic Sensors
• A magnetic
sensor is a
sensor that
detects the
magnitude of
magnetism and
geomagnetism
generated by a
magnet or
current.
Coiled Type Magnetic Sensors
Semiconductor Magnetoresistive
Element (SMR)
Interfacing Sensors
The concept of interfacing sensors is giving input
from sensors to microcontroller or input systems in
a way which they can understand and act
accordingly. Most of the sensors give output in
analog form but the microcontroller or
microprocessor needs input as digital so now
comparators act as interfacing sensors where they
convert analog signals to digital signals.
