Computer Networks
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Computer Networks
• A collection of computers and
devices interconnected to
facilitate sharing of memory,
information, and electronic
documents
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Communication Media
• Computers and other computing devices are connected by
different kinds of media
• Three types of cables
Twisted-pair Wires
Coaxial cables
Fibre optic cables
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Twisted-pair Wires
•Consist of two copper wires that are twisted into pairs
•Widely used medium for telecommunication
•Transmission speed varies from 2 Mbps to 100 Mbps
•Cheap and easy to install and use
•However, they easily pick up noise signals, and thus become
prone to error when their length extends beyond 100 m
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Coaxial Cables
• Preferred for cable TV and for connecting the computers within
short distances to form a network
• Highly resistant to signal interference and can support greater
cable lengths between network devices
• Transmission speed varies from 200 Mbps to 500 Mbps
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Fibre Optic Cables
• Carry data as pulses of light
• Transmit light that can travel over extended distances
• Transmission speed is hundreds of times more than that of coaxial
cables, and thousands of times more than that of twisted-pair
wires
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Wireless Technologies
• Terrestrial microwaves use earth-based transmitters and
receivers.
• In satellite communication, signals are transferred between the
sender and the receiver using a satellite that is stationed in space,
typically 35,400 km (for geosynchronous satellites) above the
equator.
• Infrared technology enables computing devices to communicate
via short-range wireless signals.
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Data Transmission Modes
• Simplex,
• Half-duplex, and
• Full-duplex Connections
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Simplex, Half-duplex, and Full-duplex
Connections
The data transmission mode refers to the direction of flow of data.
•In simplex mode, data flows in only one direction. It is used where
data need not flow in both directions like at certain POS terminals,
radio and TV transmissions.
•In half-duplex mode, there is only one communication channel to
carry data. Devices can share the channel, but only one of them can
transmit at a time.
•In a full-duplex connection, data flows in both the directions
simultaneously. It is widely applied in telephone systems, where both
the caller and the receiver can talk at the same time.
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Data Multiplexing
• A technique to combine multiple analogue signals or digital data
streams into one signal for transmission over a shared medium
• The reverse of multiplexing is demultiplexing. In this process, a single
analogue signal or data stream is extracted and broken into several
streams or signals, which are then transferred simultaneously over
several communication channels to the receiving devices.
• Without multiplexing, sending and receiving devices would have to be
connected through several communication channels. With multiplexing,
only a single high-speed communication channel is used, which is easy
to manage.
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Multiplexing
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• Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• Time Division Multiplexing
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Frequency-Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
• It is a scheme in which numerous signals are
combined for transmission on a single
communications line or channel.
• It is analog multiplexing technique.
• FDM requires that the bandwidth of a link
should be greater than the combined
bandwidths of the various signals to be
transmitted.
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FDM
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TDM
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Wavelength division multiplexing
(WDM)
• It is a technique of multiplexing multiple
optical carrier signals through a single optical
fiber channel by varying the wavelengths of
laser lights. WDM allows communication in
both the directions in the fiber cable.
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Data Switching
• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching
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Circuit Switching
• An end-to-end path is set up before any data can be sent.
• If no circuit can be established between the sender and the
receiver due to lack of resources, the connection is said to be
blocked.
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Message Switching
• If a device (sender) wants to transmit data, it attaches the destination
address to the message.
• Between the sender and the receiver, there may be n number of
intermediate nodes which accept the data, store it temporarily, check
for any error, and then transmit it to one of its directly connected
device.
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Packet Switching
• Similar to message switching
• However, in message switching, the message can have unlimited
length, whereas in packet switching, a message is split into packets
of fixed size
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Network Topologies
• It refers to the actual geometric layout of computers and other
devices connected to the network.
Bus Topology
Star Topology
Mesh Topology
Hybrid Topology
Ring Topology
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Bus Topology
• Each computer or server is connected to a single cable
Advantages
Easy to install and connect a new device to the network
Requires less cable length, so inexpensive
Failure of a single node does not affect the network
Disadvantages
Failure in the cable shuts the entire network
In case of network shutdown, difficult to identify problem
As the number of nodes increases, speed slows down
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Star Topology
• Each node is connected to a central hub with a point-to-point
connection
Advantages
Easy to install and detect faults
New nodes can be connected easily
Failure of node (except the hub) does not affect the network
Disadvantages
Requires more cable length than bus topology, so expensive
If the central hub fails, the entire network is shut down
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Ring Topology
• All nodes are connected to each other, so that every node is
connected directly to nodes on either side of it
Advantages
Best suited for networks that do not have a hub
More reliable, easy to install, can span over larger distances
Disadvantages
Causes delay in communication
Difficult to diagnose the fault; if one node fails, the entire
network is shut down
Difficult to add or remove nodes from the network
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Mesh Topology
• Every node is connected to every other node on the network using a
separate physical link
Advantages
Failure of a node does not affect the entire network
Communication is fast. No traffic problem
Ensures security of data. Easy to detect network errors
Disadvantages
Most expensive network and difficult to install
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Hybrid Topology
• In real world, a pure star, pure ring, or pure bus is rarely used.
Rather, a combination of two or more topologies is preferred like a
star–ring and the star–bus networks.
• The exact configuration of a hybrid network depends on the needs
and structure of the organization where it is deployed.
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Types of Network
• Local Area Network
• Wide Area Network
• Metropolitan Area Network
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Local Area Network
• Used to connect computers and devices in a limited geographical
area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or
a closely positioned group of buildings
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Wide Area Network
• Span a large geographic area such as a city, country, or even
intercontinental distances, using a communication channel that
combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and
air waves
• The Internet is a public WAN, but organizations can also form private
WANs, which are basically two or more LANs connected to each
other
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Metropolitan Area Network
• A network that interconnects computers and other devices in a
geographical area or region larger than that covered by even a large
LAN, but smaller than the area covered by a WAN
• Usually not owned by a single individual or an organization but by
either a consortium of users or by a network service provider who
sells the service to the users
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Networking Devices
• Hub: Device to which different devices are
connected so that they can communicate
with each other
• Repeaters: regenerate incoming electrical,
wireless, or optical signals
• Switch: is an intelligent device that can be
used in all places where a hub is used
It has a switching table that stores the
address of every computer or device
connected to it and sends the data only to
the destined device rather than broadcast
the data to all the devices connected to it.
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Bridge
• Device that connects two or more LANs
• When a bridge receives data from one LAN to forward it to another
LAN, it first regenerates and then forwards it
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• Network Interface Card: Network services can
be used through a Network Interface Card,
also known as the network adapter or the
LAN card
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Router
• An intelligent device that routes data to destination computers
• Basically used to connect two different networks like two LANs, two
WANs, and a LAN with WAN
• Uses special software known as routing table that stores the
addresses of devices connected to the network
• Routes the data packets between two networks based on the best
possible path for fast data transmission
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• Given by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984
• An abstract model that provides a networking framework of standards
to enable diverse equipment and applications from different vendors
to communicate with each other.
• Divides the complex task of computer-to-computer communications
(also known as internetworking) into a series of seven layers
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Application Layer and Presentation Layer
• Application layer provides services to support end-user
applications such as email, file transfer, user interface, database
access, and remote printer access
• Commonly used protocols include http, ftp, telnet, smtp
• Presentation layer, also called the syntax layer , formats and
encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from
compatibility problems.
• Also responsible for data compression
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Session Layer and Transport Layer
• Session layer establishes, coordinates, manages, and terminates
connections between applications
• Also acts as a dialog controller to decide which device will be
transmitted
• Transport layer is responsible for reliable data transfer between
two systems
• Also provides error control and flow control mechanisms
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Network Layer and Data Link Layer
• Network layer is in charge of all the addressing issues
– Determines the best path(routing technologies), and sends the packets on
that route
– Also manages network problems such as data congestion
• Data link layer converts the data packets into a stream of 0s and 1s
– Also responsible for error control, flow control, and reliable data transfer
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Physical Layer
• Physical layer converts the raw stream of bits into electrical
signals, optical signals, or electromagnetic signals depending on
whether the underlying network uses a cable circuit (using coaxial
cable), fibre optic circuit, or microwave circuit, respectively
• Concerned with all the physical aspects of data transmission
• Establishes, maintains, and terminates physical connections
between computers
• Decides how many volts should be used to represent 0 and 1
• Decides how many bits should be transmitted in a second
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OSI Layers
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Port no tells to connect correct application of received data
Seq no for arrangement of sequence of segments
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