Welding

Welding can be
defined as a
process of
joining similar
or dissimilar
metals by
application of
heat with or
without
1
application of
 Poll

Welding requires:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] Material
[Link]

2
 Exercise
Suggest best suitable methods for joining following:
1. Golden neckless with its pendant,
2. An IC on a PCB,
3. Roll cage of a rickshaw made up of Aluminium alloy
4. Joining SS tube with CI tube
5. A milling cutter on arbor
6. Output shaft of a motor with gear box in lathe machine tool
7. Hollow iron leg of table

3
Allied Processes

4
1. Soldering
2. Brazing
3. Braze Welding: The braze welding process is a variant of the MIG/MAG
welding process, where the majority of the process-essential variables
are identical to conventional MIG/MAG welding processes. However, in
the braze welding process, the melting point of the filler wires is
significantly lower with relation to the melting point of the parent
material.
4. Adhesive Bonding
5. Metal Spraying

5
Introduction:
Fusion welding
• Process of joining two metal pieces by application of heat.
• Parts to be joined are placed together, heated (often with addition of filler
metal), until they melt and solidify on cooling.
• Following methods could be used to develop heat:
 Combustion of fuel gas with oxygen.
 Electric arc.
 Electric resistance heating.
 Plasma arc, electron beam, laser beam.
• Sometimes pressure is also applied with heat to have better joining section.
• Fillers are used to attain additional strength of the joint.
• Ways of applying pressure can be hammering, rolling or using dies.
• In fusion welding metals to be joined are brought to fluid state without
application of pressure and joined by filler material.

6
Solid Phase or plastic or pressure welding:
• Clean faces of component are brought into intimate contact to produce a
metallic bond with or without application of heat.
• Here application of pressure is essential to produce the plastic flow.
• Now a days means to weld dissimilar metals have been found out.
• Welding gives 100% strength of the joint and is very easy process.

Weldability:
• Is capacity of being welded into inseparable joints having specific
properties like definite weld strength, proper structure etc.
• Weldability is based on criterion like ease of welding and weld
quality.
Thus welding can be defined as a process of
joining similar or dissimilar metals by
application of heat with or without application
of pressure and addition of filler material.

Welding can be categorized in following two wide groups:

1. Fusion or Non Pressure Welding
7
2. Plastic or Pressure Welding
 Fusion welding

Gas Welding Arc Welding Others

• Air Acetylene • Shielded Carbon Arc • Electron Beam
• Oxy Acetylene • Unshielded Carbon • Thermit welding
Arc
• Oxy Hydrogen • Laser Welding
• Metal Arc Welding
• Gas Metal Arc (MIG)
• Gas Tungsten Arc
(TIG)
• Atomic Hydrogen Arc
• Plasma Arc
• Submerged Arc
• Flux Cored Arc
• Electro Slag 8
 Pressure
Welding

Forge Welding Resistance Others

• Manual
Welding • Ultrasonic
• Spot Welding
• Machine • Friction Welding
 Hammer • Seam Welding
• Explosion Welding
 Roller • Projection Welding

 Die • Butt welding

• Percussion
Solid state welding:
Welding
•Here mechanical force is applied until materials deform to plastic state.
•Bonds are then formed through molecular interaction.
•Solid state welding may be of various kinds, namely,
Cold welding
Diffusion welding
9
Hot forging
Advantages of Welding over other joints:
• Lighter structures with higher joint strength can be easily and rapidly
made.
• Thus are cheaper.
• welded joints have higher corrosion resistance.
• Are fluid tight for tanks and vessels.
• Can be easily and economically altered.
• Variety of joints are possible.

Welding radiations, hazards and protection:

• Produces waves of longer wavelength than X and γ rays.
• These are made up of visible light rays, infra red rays and ultraviolet rays.
• Visible light rays generate welder's flash and can cause eye strain and
general discomfort.
• Ultraviolet rays can cause burns to corners and eye retina.
• Infrared rays have longer wavelength and produce heat when they strike
and are absorbed into surface.
• For protection, welders should wear welding jackets made of leather, 10
denim, boot.
Gas Welding:
• Here heat necessary to produce the fusion is obtained by burning some gas
issuing from nozzle of a blow pipe or torch.
• Gas issuing from the nozzle is already mixed with amount of oxygen
required to produce a flame.
• This flame may be chemically oxidizing, neutral or reducing depending on
the requirement of the type of metal or alloy being welded.
• Various combinations can be used for producing a hot flame for welding
metals.

Oxy – acetylene welding:

• Gases used are oxygen (O2) and acetylene (C2H2) for producing flame.
• Oxygen is generally produced by liquidification of air and then separating it
into component parts by rectification.
• It can be obtained under high pressure (14 MPa and 200C) in cylinders
which are fitted with pressure regulators.
• Oxygen can also be produced by electrolysis of water.
• Acetylene is obtained by dropping lumps of calcium carbide (CaC 2) in water.
11
CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
• Oxygen Cylinders are painted black.
• Acetylene cylinders are painted maroon.
• Acetylene must be used at low pressure otherwise it may explode.

Gas Flames
Is phenomenon produced at surface of nozzle tip, where two gases meet and
undergo combustion with evolution of heat and some light.
2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
• Heat produced is approximately 53.38 MJ/m3 of acetylene.
• For complete combustion, ratio of O2 to C2H2 is 2.5 to 1.
• Proportion of oxygen to acetylene can be varied to produce carburizing or
oxidizing or neutral flame.

Neutral flame:
• If O2 and C2H2 are used in equal proportion then incomplete combustion of
acetylene occurs at torch tip.
C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2 + Heat Energy

• Subsequently CO and H2 produced burn on coming in contact with

atmospheric O2 12
• Thus a type of envelope is formed out of combustion of CO on the inner
flame formed due to incomplete combustion of C2H2.
• Inner white and sharply defined central cone referred as luminous cone is
at a temperature around 3300oC.
• No oxidation takes place, thus widely used.
• Used for welding all metals like ferrous materials, Cu and Aluminum except
brass.

Carburizing or reducing flame:

• If proportion of acetylene is increased then carburizing flame is achieved.
• Bright luminous
Oxidizing Flame:inner zone of the flame is at temperature of 31500C.
• Is obtained by increasing the oxygen flow rate.
• Here inner pointed cone is at a temperature of about 35000C

13
Equipments:
1. O2 cylinders:
2. C2H2 cylinders:
3. Regulators:
• When acetylene is fully filled it
has a pressure of 250 psi and
oxygen cylinder has 2200 psi.
• Regulator is used to regulate this
pressure and lower it to make
usable at desired working
pressure in the torch.
• Single stage and two stage
regulators are used.
4. Welding Hoses:
• Cylinders, torches and regulators
are connected by rubber hoses.
5. Check Valve:
• Mixing of fuel and O2 for combustion should occur in torch mixer or torch
tip. 14
• Check valve is installed b/w hoses and torch to prevent back flow thus
6. Welding torches:
• The assembly consists of handle, O2 and fuel gas valves and mixing
chamber.
• Welding tips or cutting attachment may be used with handle.
• O2 and fuel gas flow through tubes inside the handle.
• These gases mix in mixing chamber or at tip.

7. Welding and cutting tips:

Welding of metal results when two pieces are heated to a temperature that
produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten pool is generally
supplied with additional metal called filler. Filler material depends upon the
metals to be welded.
A cutting torch is used to heat metal to kindling (auto igniting) temperature.
15
A stream of oxygen is then trained on the metal, and metal burns in that
16
• The selection of the flame is based on the metal to be welded.
• The neutral flame is the most commonly used flame.
• Metals and flame to be used are as given below:

Metal Flame
Mild steel Neutral
Copper (de-oxidized) Neutral
Brass Oxidizing
Cast iron Neutral
Stainless steel Neutral
Aluminium (pure) Neutral
Stellite Carburizing

17
Arc Welding:
• Heat required to melt the base metal is obtained from an arc.
• An arc is established b/w metal electrode and workpiece.
• Heat is liberated at arc terminals which melts the base metal at the point of
contact.
• Filler material is added to the surface of metal to attain additional
strength.
• Temperature of arc is around 36000C and maximum up to 55000C.
• This heat causes a small pool of metal to melt in the work.
• For filler material welding rod is used which is melted by heat of arc.
• This melted filler material is deposited into the small pool of molten metal.
• Arc agitates the molten metal in the pool causing base and added metal to
mix thoroughly, which forms a sound joint on cooling.
• Properties and composition of a weld should match those of the base metal
closely.
• Thus different types of rods have been developed for welding of different
metals
18
• Electrodes can be flux coated or bare.
• This flux is intended to perform following functions:
1. Produce gas which provides a shield around the arc to protect it from the
atmosphere.
2. Forms slag by mixing with impurities of the molten metal and thus refines
metal.
3. Slag being less dense floats over molten metal surface and protects the
molten metal pool from oxidation. This slag is easily chipped off with
chipping hammer at the end of the process.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

• Arc is created by low voltage, high current supply.
19
• Arc initiation voltage: 60 to 100V and arc maintenance voltage 25 to 40V.
 Arc can be described as a stream of incandescent
metallic vapor which acts as a conducting medium for
electric current from one terminal to other to complete
the circuit.
• To form an arc contact is first made between the electrode and work to
create an electric spark.
• This spark is carried away with the conducting electrode material on
separating the electrodes.
• Thus arc can be said to form when two current carrying conductors are
brought together and then separated, provided there is sufficient voltage
available to force a flow of current through air gap.
• When the arc is struck, the intense heat produced quickly melts the work
piece metal under the arc and produces a molten weld puddle.
• Simultaneously the end of the electrode melts and the molten metal is
carried by the arc into the metal pool on the work piece to provide filler
metal to the joint.
• Proper arc length is important for sustaining the arc and producing a good
weld.
• Arc length is the distance through the centre of arc from tip of electrode to
bottom of arc crater.
20
•Arc blow occur in DC welding when the arc stream does not follow the
•It is caused by the preferential magnetic fields developed near the arc.
•These are most often caused by the arc current ground path or in the
fixture holding the part to be welded.
•The fields interact with the self induced field around the electrode.
•When employing DC power the external field will be preferentially in one
direction.
•This builds a stronger field on one side of the arc than the other causing it to
move in the direction of the weakened field.
•The worse situation is when this movement causes the arc to blow
backwards and become unstable.
•This can generate gross porosity in the deposit.
• Solution is to use AC instead of DC.
Arc Welding Equipments:
1. Electric supply source: Arc can be struck either with AC or DC source.
• Arc initiation voltage may vary from 60 to 100V and arc maintenance
voltage ranges between 15 to 40V.
• Current for welding may range from 30 to 600 amperes.
• Source AC or DC should have low voltage and high current characteristics.
21

• Either DC generator or AC alternator with step down transformer is used.

• Transformer does not have any moving parts.
•Thus needs less maintenance, less running cost and high efficiency.
• Step down transformer reduces supply main voltage to welding voltage of
80V.
• Different values of current b/w 50 and 400 amperes is obtained with the
help of secondary coil tapped at number of points.
•Polarity (direction of current flow) can not be changed.
• Transformer rectifier set consists of three phase AC transformer that
adjusts the line voltage to desired level.
• A selenium rectifier is used to convert AC to DC.
•This unit can supply AC or DC as and when desired.
• These rectifiers are compact, reliable and efficient.
2. Electrode holder
3. Welding cables
4. Ground clamps.
5. Welding electrodes.
6. Welding helmet and hand shield. 22
Polarity in Arc Welding:
• In AC heat generated at each pole is same because of reversal of current.
• Thus changing over connections to electrode does not effect.
• In DC positive pole of arc becomes hottest.
• If electrode is at negative of generator and workpiece at positive it is
called straight polarity.
• Reverse polarity vice versa.
• Penetration is less with uncoated electrode with reverse polarity.

Electrodes in arc welding:

1. Bare Electrodes:
• Have limited application as during welding they are exposed to O 2 and N2
of air.
• This forms non metallic constituents which are trapped in rapidly
solidifying weld metal.
• Thus strength and ductility of weld metal reduces and quality obtained is
also poor.
• Used for welding wrought iron and mild steel. 23
24
Electrodes can either be consumable or nonconsumable type.
2. Coated Electrodes:
• Coating eliminates undesirable oxides and prevent their formation.
• Heavy coated electrodes are most important and used majorly.
• Type of flux coating depends on weld metal composition.
• Slag produced should have lower density than the base metal.
• Coating helps in striking arc and enables it to be stable.
• It also provides gaseous shield, preventing oxidation of molten weld metal
pool.
• Coating also replenish elements like C, Mn, Ni etc which are partially lost
during combustion.
• Slag reduces cooling rate of joint and helps in refining of its grain structure.
• Ingredients of flux are like asbestos, mica, silica, steelite, fluorspar
(fluorites), titanium oxide, iron oxide, magnesium carbonate, calcium
carbonate and alumina.
• Alloying elements are received from ferromanganese, potassium titanate.
• Light to medium coated electrodes have coating between 10 to 55% of25
total diameter if die coated electrode.
Designation of electrodes:
Electrode specified with 6 digits as per IS coding:
• First Digit: (1 to 8) Each numbers corresponds to specific covering on
electrode.
• Second Digit: (1 to 6) Represents position of welding.
• Third Digit: (0 to 7) Number represents particularly suitable current
condition.
• Fourth Digit: (1 to 8) Minimum tensile strength of the weld metal.
• Fifth Digit: (1 to 5): Percentage elongation of deposited weld metal in
tensile testing.
• Sixth Digit: (1 to 5) Minimum impact value of the weld metal.
Arc welding
Consumable Electrodes Non Consumable Electrodes
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding • Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
(SMAW)
• Plasma Arc welding (PAW)
• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
•Gas Tungsten Arc Welding or
• Gas Metal Arc Welding or Metal Tungsten Inert Gas welding (GTAW or
Inert Gas Welding (GMAW or MIG) TIG) 26
According to the B.I.S., the electrodes to be used for welding mild steel for
training a beginner is coded as ER4211. The classification for the
electrode ER4211 is given below for easy understanding:

•E = Flux coated or covered electrode

•R = Type of flux covering (Rutile)
•4 = Strength of the joint (UTS = 410-510 N/nm2 and YS = 330N/nm2
min.
•2 = Elongation and impact properties of the weld (Elongation = 22% min.
and impact = 47 J min. at 0°C)
•1 = Welding position (all position) welding can be done in all positions
•1 = Welding current and voltage conditions. This means that for DC
welding, the electrode can be connected to the +ve or –ve terminal. For
AC welding, the open circuit voltage should be 50 volts. 27
Shielded Metal Arc Welding:
• Arc is struck between metal and work piece.
• Arc creates temperature of 35000C concentrated at a point of welding.
• Heat produced melts surface of base metal and end of electrode which
fuses with the base metal.
• Both AC and DC may be used.
• Size of electrode chosen depends on thickness & position of the plate to be
welded.
• Electrode coating acts as flux to clean metal and create gas shield.
Defects in SMAW:
• Incomplete • Porosity
Fusion
• Cracks and Under
• Slag Inclusion
Advantages: cuts

• Simple, inexpensive and portable equipment.

• Welding possible in any direction, process used for making repairs.
Disadvantages:
• Metal deposition rate is not very high. 28

•Welding gets interrupted each time when electrode is consumed.

Arc Welding Defects 29
30
Submerged Arc Welding:
Automatic form of SMAW and can be used in straight line joining of metals.
• Bare metallic, copper plated electrode in form of long coiled wire is used .
• Copper used to ensure low resistance electrical contact between wire &
contact shoe. Arc is created between electrode and workpiece.

• The arc, the end of the electrode and molten weld pool are submerged in a
finely divided granulated powdered flux containing appropriate deoxidizers,
cleansers, and fluxing elements.
• Flux powder is fed from hopper.
31
•Tube from hopper spreads powder continuously in front of electrode in the
• Weld beds produced are exceptionally smooth.
• Un melted flux is removed by suction system and can be reused.
• Process limited to flat welding.
• Uses high current ranging between 300 to 400 amp.
Advantages:
• Use of high current gives high deposition rates.
• Deep weld penetration.
• Process thermally efficient.
• Weld beads are extremely smooth.
• Used in rebuilding and hard surfacing rolls.
Disadvantages:
• Weld cannot be seen, thus difficult.
• Limited to flat positions only.
• Overhead welding is impractical.

32
Gas Metal Arc Welding or Metal Inert Gas Welding:
• Semi automatic or automatic arc welding process.
• Continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding Argon gas are
fed through a welding gun.

• Used in automatic industry, tank, ship and aircraft building.

• Semi inert gases like CO2 or Ar + He also used now a days to reduce
process cost. 33
• Thus when wire feed rate is fixed, welding machine gives necessary
current to maintain arc.
• Current range 100 to 400 A, which depends on diameter of wire and
speed of melting of wire.
Limitations of MIG welding:
Equipments: • Irregular wire feed.
• Welding gun and wire feed unit.
• Burn back
• Power supply
• Unstable arc
• Electrode
• Heavily oxidized weld deposit.
• Shielding Gas

GMAW_Steel_85Ar-15CO2_Globular.mp4

Modes of Metal Transfer (Video)

34
 Flipped Classroom
Forces acting during metal transfer:

[Link] pull

[Link] tension (Depends on radius of electrode, capillary constant and

density of liquid metal)

[Link] interaction (Lorentz force, due to interaction of electric

current with its own magnetic field. It acts in direction of current if cross
section is increasing in direction of current and vice versa)

[Link] action of plasma: Created due to magnetic pressure . For

high current densities it causes the elongation of liquid drop and increases its
stiffness causing the liquid drop to get projected in the line of electrode
independent of gravity.
All these forces taken together decide the mode of metal transfer in welding

35
 Application of Lorentz Force in metal transfer
Image Courtesy: Manufacturing Science, Second Edition, Ghosh and Malik

36
Metal transfer in MIG welding takes place majorly by following four methods:

[Link]:
Uses CO2, a less expensive shielding gas.
Produces high heat, thus high deposition rate.
During welding a ball of molten metal from the electrode tends to build up on
end of electrode, which is irregular in shape and falls in weld pool.
Thus producing poor weld surface and spatters.
Electrode wire used are larger because of high heat produced.
2. Short Circuiting:
Uses CO2.
Electrode wire is smaller and thus current is lower.
Thus heat input is low, making possible to weld thinner materials.
Here molten droplets formed on tip of electrode bridge the gap between
electrode and weld pool, causing short circuit and arc extinguish.
Arc soon gets reignited as the surface tension of weld electrode pulls the
molten metal off the electrode tip. 37
•This process is repeated about 100 times in second, making arc appear
constant to human eye.
• Better weld quality is received, since less spatter are formed.
• Slower process than globular welding
3. Spray:
• Thick electrode used.
• Here dia of molten droplets is lesser than that of electrode unlike globular.
• droplets rapidly pass along stable arc from electrode to workpiece,
eliminating spatter and resulting high weld quality.
• High value of current and voltage is required, causing high heat input and
large weld area and HAZ.

38
4. Pulsed Spray:
• It is based on principle of spray transfer.
• Pulsing current is used to melt the filler wire and allow one small molten
droplet to fall with each pulse.
• Pulses allow average current to be lower, decreasing overall heat input and
thus decreasing size of weld pool and HAZ.
• Can be employed for making thin work piece.
• Pulse provide stable arc and no spatter.
• Shield gas should be Ar; CO2 should be least used.
• Special power source, capable of providing pulsated current is required,
having frequency 30 to 400 pulses per second.
Defects of GMAW:
• Undercutting, Incomplete fusion, Incomplete joint penetration, porosity
• Excessive melt through, weld metal crack, HAZ cracks.
Advantages of GMAW:
Limitations:
• Welding rate is very high with good quality weld.
• Irregular wire feed rate.
• No slag formation, to be chipped off. 39
•Burn back and unstable
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding or Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (GTAW or
TIG)
• Tungsten electrode is used as it can withstand high temperatures.
• Electrode is surrounded by a nozzle which conducts shielding gas (Ar or
He).
• Electrode is non consumable and separate filler material may be used.
• Tungsten alloyed with Zirconia is used to stabilize the arc and provide easy
start.
• Since it can be mechanized easily and gives high quality weld, thus used in
precision work like atomic energy and instrument industries.

•A typical TIG welding set up consists of tungsten electrode mounted in 40

centre of welding torch.
• Inert gas is supplied to welding zone through annular path surrounding
tungsten electrode to effectively displace atmosphere around weld puddle.
•Tubing for water cooling of electrodes is provided.
• Torches carrying current of 100A are usually water cooled.
• DC straight polarity or dcen, as well as dcrp or dcep may be used.
• AC supply can also be used.
• Dcen provides deep penetration and faster welding.
• Dcep provides wide weld pool and shallow penetration thus used for thin
w/p.
Defects in GTAW or TIG:
• Under cutting, weld metal cracks.
• Tungsten inclusion
•Porosity.
• HAZ cracks

41
 Advantages Disadvantages
• Superior weld quality. • Lower deposition rates.
• Filler may or may not be used. • More costly.
• Precise control of variables. • Excessive electrode deterioration.
• No cleaning required as no flux •Skilled worker needed as arc
produced initiation is difficult.
• Welding can be done in all • Not suited for welding heavier
positions. metal.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding:
• Here two tungsten electrodes are used.
• Arc is struck b/w these two electrodes.
• These electrodes are contained in body of the torch.
• Each electrode is surrounded by stream of hydrogen gas.
• Size of tungsten electrode is dependent on rate of heat input required.
• Molecules of H2 gas are broken into atoms as soon as they enter the arc, by
absorbing the heat from the arc.
• These atoms recombine into molecules outside the arc and tremendous
42
amount of heat of order of 61000C is liberated.
• These molecules also form the blanket avoiding oxygen.
• Normally AC is used, since better regulation is possible and reversing
polarity equalizes electrode deterioration.
• It gives high heat concentration. 43

• Can be used for alloy welding , H acts as shield thus no shielding gas
Electro Slag Welding:
• Used to weld seams of thick section in single pass.
• Plates to be welded are placed in a vertical position, so that molten metal is
delivered progressively to vertical gap.
• 2-3 electrodes are used which are fed vertically.
• Powdered granular flux is poured from hopper
• In starting arc is created b/w electrode
and bottom plate and continued until a
sufficient thick layer of molten slag is
formed.
• Arc only initiates melting, thereafter
heat is generated by electric resistance
offered by the electrically conducting
slag.
• A mechanism for raising the equipment
as weld is completed is also used.
• AC power source delivering 1000A is
used .
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Shielding gas like CO2 is also used.44
•Automatic process •Used for thick
with uniform heating plates only
45
Resistance Welding:
• Resistance welding is accomplished when current is caused to flow through
electrode tips and the separate pieces of metal to be joined.
• The resistance of the base metal to electrical current flow causes localized
heating in the joint, and the weld is made.
• The weld is made by a combination of heat, pressure and time.
• The pressure exerted by the tongs and electrode tips, through which the
current flows, holds the parts to be welded in intimate contact before, during
and after the welding current time cycle
• The required amount of time current flows in the joint is determined by
material thickness and the type, the amount of current flowing, and the cross
sectional area of welding tip contact surface.
•

• In resistance welding actual nugget is

formed internally, unlike that in other
welding methods like TIG.
46
• Spot welding in particular has been used extensively in the automotive
industry.
• For the joining of steel and in the aerospace industry for airframe
components in aluminum alloys.
• Seam welding is used in the production of thin sheet, leak-tight containers
such as fuel tanks.
Principle of Resistance welding:
• The basic formula for heat generation may be stated:
H = I2Rt

H is Heat, I2 is welding current squared and t is the time for which current
flows.
Spot Welding
• The resistance spot weld nugget is formed when the interface of the weld
joint is heated due to the resistance of the joint surfaces to electrical current
flow.
• The current must flow or the weld cannot be made.
• Pressure of electrode tips on the workpiece holds the part in close and
intimate contact during the making of the weld.

Spot Welding Time Cycle: 47

• SQUEEZE TIME − Time between pressure application and weld.
48
• Copper is the base metal normally used for resistance spot welding tips.
• The purpose of electrode tips is to conduct the welding current to the
workpiece.
• To be the focal point of the pressure applied.
•To weld the joint, to conduct heat from the work surface, and to maintain
their integrity of shape and characteristics of thermal and electrical
conductivity
under working conditions.
• Electrode tips are usually madeResistance
of copper Welding Machines:
and its alloys.
• AC or Dc supply may be used.
• The frame solutions for resistance welding
machines can vary greatly.
• In larger welding units and automated
production, welding force is created by
means of pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders.
• The cooling of transformers and contactors
is usually separate from the other cooling
circuit.
• Equipment manufacturers usually state the
minimum cooling water circulation rate that
must be adhered to.
•Inadequate cooling damages the heat
balance of the joint and wears the electrodes
49
quickly.
Seam Welding:
• Seam Welding replaces spot welding for producing continuous leak proof
joints for use in sheet metal containers like petrol tanks etc.
• In practice it is a continuous type of spot welding, where spot welds overlap
each other to the desired extent.
• Electrodes used are in form of copper wheels or rollers.
• One or both the wheels are powered.
• Pressure is applied in the same way as in spot welding.
• For producing gas tight seam, the welds should overlap 15 to 20% of
nugget dia.
• While for maximum strength overlap dia should be 40 to 50%.
• Size of nugget depends on weld time for given welding speed and current
and the amount of overlap depends upon the off time.
• As the electrodes rotate, the work is moved b/w them and current is
supplied in pulses during the weld time.
• Weld time is adjusted to be long enough to produce a spot weld in a metal
of given thickness and desired overlap.
50
51
Projection Welding:
• Process similar to spot welding except that the welding pressure, welding
current and hence the welding heat are localized by making projections or
embossments on one ore both the workpieces to be joined.
• Such projections are made at all the points where a weld spot is desired.
• Projections have a diameter on the face equal to about the thickness of
the stock and extend about 60% of the stock thickness above the stock.
• As welding current is passed through the joint the welding heat is
generated at these projections.
• Under the welding pressure the projection flatten allowing the two
surfaces to be joined to come together.
• The melted projection become the weld.
• Projections should have following characteristics:
1. Should be stiff enough to take squeeze force before the current is passed.
2. Should have sufficient mass to heat a spot in the plane surface to welding
temperature.
3. Should collapse during welding without splashing between sheets being
welded.
52
4. Should be properly formed without ant partial shearing.
 Soldering and Brazing
•Basic point of difference between welding as a family an soldering & brazing
as a family lies in the fact that in welding base metal along with filler metal
melts while in soldering and brazing only filler metal melts with or without a
thin layer of parent material.
•Also welding is carried at a temperature above melting point of the base
metal while soldering and brazing are far done far below the melting point of
the parent metals.
•Solder and spelters chosen for soldering and brazing are a function of
liquidus temperature. (Liquidus temperature is the minimum temperature
above which metal is in liquid state.)
•The maximum working temperature for soldering is 4500 C (4270 C) , thus
weaker.
•While for brazing it is above this but below liquidus (melting point)
temperature thus comparatively stronger. 53
 Soldering
•Is a method of joining two or more pieces of metal by means of a fusible
alloy or metal called solder applied in the molten state.
•Used for obtaining neat leak proof joint or a low resistance electrical joint.
•Not suitable for high temperature conditions owing to low melting
temperature of the filler metal used.
•Solder has 4 principal alloying elements; Tin, Lead, Zinc and Cadmium.
•Solders fall into three thermal groups:
• Those melting below 3130 C (Low melting point Solders)
• Those melting between 313 – 3710 C (Intermediate solder)
• Those melting between 371 – 4270 C (High temperature solders)
• Combination of 62% lead and 38% tin produces lowest melting point
and in practice is called 60-40 solder.

54
 Classification of Soldering
•Soft Soldering:
• Solder is mostly composed of lead and tin having melting range of 150
to 3500 C.
• Fulxes used are resin in alcohol (neutral flux), zinc chloride,
ammonium chloride etc.
•Hard (Silver) Soldering:
• Use solders that have higher melting temperature, often above 370 to
4500 C.
• Thus a torch (as used in gas welding) is needed to melt the solder.
• Gives better strength of joint.

55
 Brazing
•Process in which two similar or dissimilar metals or non metals are joined by
a non ferrous filler metal or alloy called spelter that melts above 450 0 C.
•Filler metal is filled between the surfaces to be joint by capillary action.
•Type of spelters:
• Copper (MP 10830 C)
• Copper alloys like brass, bronze etc (MP between 870 to 11000 C)
• Silver Alloys (MP between 630 to 8450 C)
• Aluminium alloys (MP between 570 to 6400 C)
• Fluxes like borax and boric acid in paste form are used for ferrous
material brazing.
• Alkaline biflourides are used for brazing SS, Al and Cu – Be alloys.
• Depending on the heat source deployed for producing a molten metal
bath brazing can be done by oxy acetylene torch, controlled
atmosphere furnace, electrical resistance heating or induction heating.
56
• Based on this brazing process can be of following types:
• Torch Brazing
• Furnace Brazing
• Dip Brazing
• Induction Brazing
• Resistance Brazing
• Braze Welding (Brazing method but filler metal does not spread due to
capillary action, it melts and gets deposited at the joint.)

57
 Solid State Welding
•Characterized by absence (or minimum) of HAZ.
•As no complete melting of the material takes place.
•Joints are free from problems of HAZ.
•Defects generated pertaining to high heat like undercut, cracks, porosity
either are removed completely or are minimized.
•Types:
• Friction Welding
• Friction Stir Welding Q = 2/3 ∏µ w [R3Shoulder – R3Pin]
• Explosion Welding
• Diffusion Welding

58
nnert, Welding Metallurgy,
WS, 1994
 Diffusion Welding
•Steady state diffusion is determined by the amount of diffusion flux that
passes through the cross sectional area of the mating surfaces.
•Fick's first law of diffusion states:

J = -D(dC/dx)
•where J is the diffusion flux, D is a diffusion coefficient, and dC/dx is the
concentration gradient through the materials in question. The negative sign
is a product of the gradient. Another form of Fick's law states:

J = M/(At)
•where M is defined as either the mass or amount of atoms being diffused, A
is the cross sectional area, and t is the time required. Equating the two
equations and rearranging, we achieve the following result:
60

t = - (1/D)(M/A)(dC/dx)-1
• As mass and area are constant for a given joint, time required is largely
dependent on the concentration gradient, which changes by only
incremental amounts through the joint, and the diffusion coefficient.
• The diffusion coefficient is determined by the equation:

D = D0 e-Qd/RT

• Where Qd is the activation energy for diffusion, R is the universal gas

constant, T is the temperature experienced during the process in Kelvin,
and D0 is a temperature independent pre exponential that depends on the
materials being joined.
• For a given joint, the only term in this equation within control is
temperature.

61
 The Process
Figure a: Surfaces to be weld are brought to
intimate contact by means of applying
pressure.
Fig a
Black color shows voids between the
surfaces while yellow color represents
contaminated oxidized layer.
Fig b
Figure b: Under the influence of pressure
and diffusion voids starts getting depleted
along with the oxidize layer.
Fig c
Figure c: Further reduction in both the zones
to the level of fine line observed

Figure d: Oxidized layer removed

Fig d
completely.

Figure e: Complete weld obtained .

62
Fig e
AWS Welding Handbook
 Welding Metallurgy and HAZ
•Coarse Grains
•Large Columnar Grains
•Fine Grains

64
65