History

Indus Valley Civilization

• The Indus Valley Civilization was established

around 3300 BC. It flourished between 2600 BC
and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It
started declining around 1900 BC and
disappeared around 1400 BC.
• This is also called Harappan Civilization after the
first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab,
Pakistan).
• Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh,
Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Uttar
Pradesh.
• It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the
West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from
Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad
(Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South.
• Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far
away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.
 Indus Valley Civilization
Important Sites

• In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal,

Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat),
Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab).
• In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi),
Mohenjodaro (on the Indus River in Sindh),
Chanhudaro (in Sindh).
• The civilization was first discovered during an
excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert
Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the
discovery of seals by J Fleet.
• Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai
Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats.
• Most cities had similar patterns.
• There were two parts: a citadel and the lower
town.
• Agriculture was the most important occupation.
• The first civilization to cultivate cotton.
• Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats, and pigs.
• Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
• Metal products were produced including those with copper,
bronze, tin, and lead.
• Gold and silver were also known.
• Iron was not known to them.
• No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
• A seal which was named ‘Pashupati Seal’ has been excavated
and it shows an image of a three-eyed figure.
• A statuette named
‘Dancing Girl’ has been
found from
Mohenjodaro and is
believed to be 4000
years old.
• A figure of a bearded
Priest-King has also
been found from
Mohenjodaro.
• The Indus Valley script has not yet been
deciphered.
 Indus Valley Civilization :Decline

• The causes of the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization have not been firmly
established.
• Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt end
but gradually declined. People moved eastwards and cities were abandoned.
• Writing and trade declined.
• Mortimer Wheeler suggested that the Aryan invasion led to the decline of the
Indus Valley. This theory has now been debunked.
• Robert Raikes suggests that tectonic movements and floods caused the decline.
• Other causes cited include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation, and
destruction of the green cover. It is possible that some cities were destroyed by
floods but not all.
• It is now accepted that several factors could have led to the decline of the Indus
Valley civilization.
 Vedic Civilization

• The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC.

• This is the next major civilization that occurred in ancient India
after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by 1400 BC.
• The Vedas were composed in this period and this gives this age
the name.
• The Vedas are also the chief source of information about this
era.
• The Vedic Age started with the coming of the Aryans or Indo-
Aryans.
 Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC –
1000 BC)
• Initially, the Aryans lived in the land known as
“Sapta Sindhu” (Land of the Seven Rivers).
• These seven rivers were: Sindhu (Indus),
Vipash (Beas), Vitasta (Jhelum), Parushni
(Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), Shutudri (Satluj) and
Saraswati.
 Political structure:
• Monarchical form of government with a king known
as Rajan.
• Patriarchal families. Jana was the largest social unit
in Rig Vedic times.
• Social grouping: kula (family) – grama – visu – jana.
• Tribal assemblies were called Sabhas and Samitis.
Examples of tribal kingdoms: Bharatas, Matsyas,
Yadus and Purus.
 Social structure:
• Women enjoyed a respectable position. They were
allowed to take part in Sabhas and Samitis.
• Cattle especially cows became very important.
• Monogamy was practised but polygamy was
observed among royalty and noble families.
• There was no child marriage.
• Social distinctions existed but were not rigid and
hereditary.
 Economic structure:
• They were pastoral and cattle-rearing people.
• They practised agriculture.
• They had horse chariots.
• Rivers were used for transport.
• Cotton and woollen fabrics were spun and used.
• Initially, trade was conducted through the barter
system but later on, coins called ‘nishka’ were in
use.
 Religion:
• They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire,
wind, rain, thunder, etc. by personifying them into
deities.
• Indra (thunder) was the most important deity.
Other deities were Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire),
Varuna (rain) and Vayu (wind).
• Female deities were Ushas and Aditi.
• There were no temples and no idol worship.
 Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC – 600 BC)

• During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards

and occupied western and eastern UP (Kosala)
and Bihar.
 Political structure:
• Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas were formed by
amalgamating smaller kingdoms.
• King’s power increased and various sacrifices were
performed by him to enhance his position.
• Sacrifices were Rajasuya (consecration ceremony),
Vajapeya (chariot race) and Ashwamedha (horse
sacrifice).
• The Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance.
 Social structure
• The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. This
became less based on occupation and more hereditary.
• The four divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were:
Brahmanas (priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists,
traders and artisans), and Shudras (servers of the upper three classes).
• Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas
and Samitis. Their position in society diminished.
• Child marriages became common.
• Sub-castes based on occupation also emerged.
• Gotras were institutionalised.
 Economic structure:
• Agriculture was the chief occupation.
• Industrial work like metalwork, pottery and
carpentry work also was there.
• There was foreign trade with far off regions
like Babylon and Sumeria.
 Religion:
• Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) became
important gods.
• Indra and Agni lost their significance.
• Importance of prayers diminished and rituals and
sacrifices became more elaborate.
• The priestly class became very powerful and they
dictated the rules of the rites and rituals. Because of this
orthodoxy, Buddhism and Jainism emerged towards the
end of this period.
 Vedic Literature
• The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual
knowledge/subject of knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge.
• The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
• Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were
written in the Later Vedic Age.
• Rig Veda – this is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028
hymns and is classified into 10 mandalas.
• Yajur Veda – this deals with the ways to perform rituals.
• Sama Veda – deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from
Sama Veda.
• Atharva Veda – contains spells and magical formula.
• Other Vedic texts were the Brahmanas
(explains the meaning of sacrifices);
Upanishads (also called Vedantas, 108 in
number, source of Indian philosophy); and
Aranyakas (books of instructions).
• The great Indian epics of Mahabharata and
Ramayana were also composed during this
period.
 Rise of Magadha and Mauryan Empire

The Magadha Empire encompasses the rule of

three dynasties over time –
• Haryanka Dynasty,
• Shishunaga Dynasty,
• Nanda Dynasty
 Magadha Empire – Haryanka Dynasty

• The first important and powerful dynasty in Magadha was

the Haryanka dynasty Bimbisara (558 BC – 491 BC).
• According to Buddhist chronicles, Bimbisara ruled for 52
years (544 BCE – 492 BCE).
• Contemporary and follower of the Buddha. Was also said to
be an admirer of Mahavira, who was also his contemporary.
• Had his capital at Girivraja/Rajagriha (Rajgir).
– It was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings of which were closed
by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajagriha impregnable.
• Was the first king to have a standing army. Magadha came into
prominence under his leadership.
• He had a rivalry with Avanti king Pradyota, but later became
friends and Bimbsara even sent his royal physician Jivaka to
Ujjain, when Pradyota had jaundice.
• He started the practice of using matrimonial alliances to
strengthen his political position.
• He had three wives: Kosaladevi (King of Kosala’s daughter and
the sister of Prasenjit), Chellana (daughter of the Lichchavi chief
of Vaisali) and Khema (daughter of the king of Madra, Punjab).
 Ajatasatru (492 BC – 460 BC)
• Son of Bimbisara and Chellana.
• He killed his father and became ruler.
• Embraced Buddhism.
• He convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha just after the death of Buddha
in 483 BCE. Won wars against Kosala and Vaishali.
• Ajatashatru waged a war against Vaishali despite the fact that his mother was a
Lichchhavi princess. It took him 16 long years to destroy Vaishali and add it to his
empire.
• He used a war engine to throw stones like catapults. He also possessed chariots to
which maces were attached which facilitated mass killings.
• The ruler of Avanti tried to invade Magadha and to thwart this danger Ajatashatru
began the fortification of Rajgriha. However, the invasion did not materialise during
his lifetime.
 Udayin (460 BCE – 444 BCE)
• Son of Ajatasatru.
• Shifted the capital to Pataliputra (Patna).
• Last of the major Haryanka rulers.
• Udayin’s reign is important because he built the fort upon the
confluence of the rivers Ganga and Son at Pataliputra. This was
done because Patna lay in the centre of the Magadha
Kingdom, which now extended from the Himalayas in the
north to the hills of the Chotanagpur in the south.
• He was killed at the behest of Palaka, the king of Avanti.
• Succeeded by three kings – Aniruddha, Manda and
Nagadasaka.
 Magadha Empire – Sisunaga Dynasty

• According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people

of Magadha revolted during the reign of
Nagadasaka and placed an amatya (minister)
named Sisunaga as the king. Sisunaga dynasty
lasted from 413 BCE to 345 BCE.
 Sisunaga
• Was the viceroy of Kasi before becoming king of Magadha.
• The capital was at Girivaraja.
• The most important achievement of Shishunaga was the
destruction of the power of Avanti with its capital at
Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100-year-old rivalry
between Magadha and Avanti. Avanti became a part of the
Magadha empire and continued to be so till the end of the
Mauryan rule.
• Later shifted the capital to Vaishali.
 Kalasoka
• Son of Sisunaga. Also known as Kakavarna.
• Kalasoka shifted the capital to Pataliputra.
• He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at
Vaishali.
• He was killed in a palace revolution that
brought the Nanda dynasty to the throne.
 Magadha Empire – Nanda Dynasty

• This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty and it

lasted from 345 BCE to 321 BCE.
• The first ruler was Mahapadma Nanda who
usurped the throne of Kalasoka.
 Mahapadma Nanda
• He is called the “first historical emperor of India.” (Chandragupta Maurya is
the First Emperor of India)
• He murdered Kalasoka to become the king.
• His origins are not clear. As per the Puranas, he was the son of the last
Sisunaga king from a Sudra woman. As per some Jain texts and Greek writer
Curtius, he was the son of a barber and a courtesan.
• Thus, the Nandas were considered adharmika (those who don’t follow the
norms of Dharma). Buddhist texts describe the Nandas as belonging to
annatakula (unknown lineage).
• His reign lasted for twenty-eight years.
• He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the Kshatriyas) and
“Ekrat” (sole sovereign who destroyed all other ruling princes).
• The empire grew under his reign. It ran from the Kuru country in
the north to the Godavari Valley in the south and from Magadha
in the east to Narmada on the west.
• He conquered many kingdoms.
• He added Kalinga to Magadha and brought an image of Jina as a
victory trophy.
• He also acquired Kosala which had probably rebelled against him.
• Also called Ugrasena in Pali texts because of his large army. The
Nandas were fabulously rich and enormously powerful.
• They maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry and 6000 war
elephants. Such a huge army could be maintained only through an
effective taxation system.
 Dhana Nanda
• He was the last Nanda ruler.
• He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts.
• Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign,
but he could not proceed towards the Gangetic plains
because of his army’s refusal.
• Dhana Nanda inherited a huge empire from his father. He
possessed a standing army of 200,000 infantry, 20,000
cavalry, 3000 elephants and 2000 chariots. He became a
powerful ruler because of this.
• He is said to be one of the 8 or 9 sons of Mahapadma
Nanda.
• He is credited with the invention of Nandopakramani (a
particular measure).
• He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an
oppressive way of extorting taxes. Also, his Sudra origins and
an anti-Kshatriya policy led to a large number of enemies.
• Finally, he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya along
with Chanakya, who took advantage of the public
resentment and established the Maurya Empire in Magadha.
 Features of Mahajanapadas

• The basic unit of settlement was the village (Grama) and when two villages
merged, it led to Sangrama.
• Society during the Mahajanapadas period was divided into various classes
- nobles, traders, farmers and labourers.
• The main occupation was agriculture and the kingdoms were mainly
agrarian. Trade and commerce also flourished due to the well-established
trade routes.
• The Mahajanapadas were religiously diverse, and people followed different
religions, such as Hinduism and heterodox sects such as Buddhism and
Jainism.
• The kingdoms had a well-organised army.
• They built impressive structures such as temples, stupas and palaces.
• Two major tradе routеs, namеly
"Uttarapatha" and "Dakshinapatha,"
intеrconnеctеd various parts of thе sub-
continеnt.
• Ports like Tamralipta (Tamluk), Bharuch, and
Sopara wеrе vital cеntеrs of tradе during this
еra.
 Magadha, the most powerful Mahajanapada

Natural boundaries:
• Magadha was naturally еncirclеd by thе Ganga, Son,
and Champa rivеrs to its north, wеst, and еast,
respectively. This geographical layout provided
natural barriers that enhanced dеfеnsе, facilitatеd
transportation, еnsurеd watеr supply, and promotеd
agricultural fеrtility.
• Its formеr capital was nеstlеd amid five hills
prеsеnting built-in natural fortifications.
Stratеgic Capitals:
• Rajagriha or Girivraja, its first capital, was
protected by five hills which made the
city impregnable. Rajgriha is also the earliest
example of a fortified capital city in ancient India.
• Pataliputra, the later capital of Magadha, was
situated at the confluence of the Ganga, Son and
Gandak rivers forming a "jaladurga or water fort".
This strategic location provided security to the
capital and a monopoly over the riverine trade.
Abundant natural resources:
• The abundance of rivers was important for water supplies,
transport and making the agricultural land fertile.
• Some areas of Magadha were covered with
forest. Elephants were trained for the army. Wood for
building houses, carts and chariots was also provided by
the forests.
• The presence of iron ore mines in the region was useful to
make strong tools and weapons.
• Sufficient rainfall and a perennial supply of river water
and fertile land caused the surplus of agricultural produce.
Economic factors:
• Magadha controlled the trade routes of the
Ganges valley and the sea routes of the Bay of
Bengal.
• Prosperity and a rise in the population led to an
increase in activities of agriculture, mining,
building cities and expanding the army.
• It was positioned approximately between the
Vatsa and Anga, which facilitated trade and
commerce with both the mahajanapadas.
• Ambitious rulers
• Bimbisara used every possible means to the conquest
of other janapadas. He used both matrimonial
alliances and direct conquests.
• Ajatshatru, Bimbisara’s son, was even more ambitious.
He conquered other kingdoms using direct methods as
well as deception and deceit.
• Mahapadm Nanda was also very ambitious in
extending the territory of Magadha.
• The rulers of Magadha maintained strong standing
militaries.
 Buddhism & Jainism

• Kshatriya class’ resentment towards the domination of

the priestly class.
• Rise of the new agricultural economy that needed animal
husbandry.
• The Vaishyas and other mercantile groups favoured
Buddhism and Jainism as they yearned for a better social
and peaceful life.
• Acceptance of simple and peace centred principles of
Buddhism and Jainism by people.
 Gautama Buddha & Buddhism

• The Buddha – Biography

• The Gautama Buddha was born to Suddhodana as Siddhartha in 563
BCE on Vaishakha Poornima day at Lumbini (Nepal).
• He lost his mother (Mahamaya) just a few days after his birth and was
brought up by his stepmother Gautami.
• He was married to Yashodhara at the early age of 16 and had a son
named Rahula.
• At the age of 29, he left his palace and decided to become a
wanderer. He along with Channa, his charioteer and his horse,
Kanthaka, wandered for six long years in search of truth
(Mahabhinishkramana/Great Renunciation).
• At the age of 35, he ultimately attained
Nirvana/enlightenment at Gaya, Magadha (Bihar) under a
peepal tree (Bodhi tree), on the banks of river Niranjana and
came to be known as the Buddha – the Enlightened One.
• The Buddha delivered his first sermon on deliverance from
sufferings to his five former companions at Sarnath.
• This event is known as Dhamma Chakka-Pavattana, which
means turning the wheel of dharma.
• The Buddha wandered about for over four decades, and
established an order of monks and nuns known as Sangha.
• He attained Parinirvana at the age of 80 at Kusinara (of the
Mallas).
• The five forms that represent Buddha are:
– Lotus and Bull – Birth
– Horse – Renunciation
– Bodhi Tree – Mahabodhi
– Dhammachakra Pravartana – First sermon
– Footprints – Nirvana
 Doctrines of Buddhism

The core of Buddha’s doctrine is expressed in

the:
• Ariya-Sacchani (four noble truths).
• Ashtangika-Marga (Eight Fold Path).
• Middle Path.
• Social Code of Conduct.
• Attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.
 Teachings of Buddhism:
• Dukha (The truth of suffering) – As per Buddhism, everything is suffering
(Sabbam Dukham). It refers to the potential to experience pain and not
only the actual pain and sorrow experienced by an individual.
• Samudaya (The truth of the cause of suffering) – Trishna (desire) is the
main cause of suffering. Every suffering has a reason and it is a part and
parcel of living.
• Nirodha (The truth of the end of suffering) – the pain/sorrow can be
ended by the attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.
• Ashtangika-Marga (The truth of the path leading to the end of
suffering) – the end to the suffering is contained in the eightfold path.
 Reasons for Decline

• Corruption in Buddhist Sangha.

• Division among Buddhists.
• Use of Sanskrit language.
• Buddha worship.
• Persecution of Buddhists.
• Muslim invasion.
 Jainism

• The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or

Tirthankaras.
• There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was
Vardhaman Mahavira.
• The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath or
Rishabhadev.
• The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in
Varanasi. He may have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC.
• All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth.
 Mahavira (540 – 468 B.C.)

• Considered the last Tirthankara. He was born at

Kundagrama near Vaisali.
• Father – Siddhartha ,Mother – Trishala .
• He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter
Anojja or Priyadarsana.
• At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his
home and became a wandering ascetic.
• He also observed self-mortification.
• After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest
spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnan.
• He attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal
tree aged 42.
• This is called Kaivalya. Thereafter, he was called
Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his
senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds), and Kevalin.
• He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at
Pava (near Rajagriha) aged 72.
 Causes of the rise of Jainism

• Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic.

• Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit thus was more accessible to the common man as compared

to Sanskrit.

• It was accessible to people of all castes.

• Varna system had rigidified and people of the lower castes led miserable lives. Jainism offered

them an honourable place.

• About 200 years after the death of Mahavira, a great famine in the Ganga valley prompted

Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu (last Acharya of the undivided Jain sangha) to migrate to

Karnataka.

• Jainism spread to Southern India after that.

 Teachings of Jainism

• Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.

• He did not believe in God’s existence. According to
him, the universe is a product of the natural
phenomenon of cause and effect.
• He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul.
The body dies but the soul does not.
• One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma.
• Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
• Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system, unlike
Buddhism. But he also said that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his
actions and not birth.
• Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity, and self-
mortification were expounded.
• Two elements of the world: Jiva (conscious) and Atma (unconscious):
– Right faith
– Right knowledge
– Right conduct (observance of five vows)
• Ahimsa (non-violence)
• Satya (truth)
• Asteya (no stealing)
• Aparigraha (no acquiring property)
• Brahmacharya (abstinence)
 Modern History
Battle of Plassey:
• It is a battle fought between the East India Company
force headed by Robert Clive and Siraj-Ud-Daulah
(Nawab of Bengal).
• The rampant misuse by EIC officials of trade
privileges infuriated Siraj.
• The continuing misconduct by EIC against Siraj-Ud-
Daulah led to the battle of Plassey in 1757.
 Causes of the Battle of Plassey
• The rampant misuse of the trade privileges given to the
British by the Nawab of Bengal.
• Non-payment of tax and duty by the workers of the
British East India Company.
• Fortification of Calcutta by the British without the
Nawab’s permission.
• Misleading Nawab on various fronts by British.
• An asylum was provided to Nawab’s enemy Krishna Das.
 Effects of Battle of Plassey

Apart from the British getting political power of

Northern India but only after Nawabs, there
were several other effects in many forms that
came out as a result of the Battle of Plassey.
They can be categorised as:
• Political Effects
• Economic Effects
 Political Effects
• The Battle of Plassey resulted at the end of the
French forces.
• Mir Jafar was crowned as the Nawab of Bengal
• Mir Jafar was unhappy with the position and
instigated the Dutch to attack the British in order to
consolidate his foundation.
• Battle of Chinsura was fought between the Dutch
and British forces on November 25, 1759.
• The British installed Mir Qasim as the Nawab
of Bengal.
• The British became the paramount European
power in Bengal.
• Robert Clive was titled “Lord Clive”, Baron of
Plassey and also obtained a seat in the British
House of Commons.
 Economic Effects
• The economy of India was affected severely.
• Post the victory, the British started imposing
severe rules and regulations on the
inhabitants of Bengal in the name of tax
collection.
 Revolt of 1857

• This War of Independence marked the end of

rule by the British East India Company. Post
this, India was directly ruled by the British
government through representatives known
as Governor-General.
 Immediate Reason of Revolt of 1857

• The immediate factor was the introduction of the ‘Enfield’ rifle.

• The cartridge had to be bitten off before loading it into the
gun.
• Indian sepoys believed that the cartridge was greased with
either pig fat or made from cow fat.
• This was against the Hindu and Muslim sentiments.
• Thus they were reluctant to use the ‘Enfield’ rifle. This was a
flashpoint to enrage the soldiers against the British.
• As a result was believed to be the immediate factor for the
revolt of 1857.
 Various Factors
• Religious & Social Causes – Racism or racial
discrimination was believed to be a major
reason for the revolt of 1857 wherein Indians
were exploited and were kept away from
mixing with Europeans. The whites also
started interfering in the religious and cultural
affairs of Indians and tortured them as well.
 Political Causes
• The British expansion had led to the propagation of unjust policies that
led to the loss of power of the Nawabs and Zamindars residing at
various places of India.
• The introduction of unfair policies like the policy of Trade and
Commerce, the policy of indirect subordination (subsidiary alliance),
the policy of war and annexation, the policy of direct subordination
(doctrine of lapse), the policy of misgovernance (through which Awadh
was annexed) greatly hampered the interests of the rulers of the native
states, and they one by one became victims of British expansionism.
• Therefore, those rulers, who lost their states to the British, were
naturally against the British and took sides against them during the
revolt.
 Economic Factors
• There were various reforms in the taxation
and revenue system that affected the
peasants heavily. British Government had
imposed and introduced various
administrative policies to expand their
territory.
 Military Factors
• Another major cause was the General Enlistment Act of July 25 1856.
• Passed 10 months before the rebellion, the act required that new recruits to
the Bengal Army to accept a commitment for general service.
• Earlier the enlisted men of the Bengal Army had been exempted from
serving overseas as they believed that such an act would be against their
beliefs.
• But the Madras and Bombay regiments had no such inhibitions.
• Governor-General Lord Dalhousie felt it unfair that the burden of
deployment fell squarely on the smaller presidency armies.
• With the signing of the act, sepoys of the Bengal Army felt that it would also
prevent their sons from following their footsteps while fearing the prospect
of serving overseas.
 Impact of Revolt of 1857

• The revolt of 1857 shook the foundation of the British

East India Company and disclosed their inefficiency in
handling the Indian administration.
• The major impact was the introduction of the
Government of India Act, 1858 which abolished the rule
of the British East India Company and marked the
beginning of the British Raj that bestowed powers in the
hands of the British government to rule India directly
through representatives.
 Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

• The Rowlatt Act was passed by the British government

to increase their grip on power over the common folk.
• This law was passed in March 1919 by the Imperial
Legislative Council which gave them the power to
arrest any person without any trial.
• To abolish this act, Gandhi and the other leaders called
for a Hartal (suspension of work) to show Indians’
objection to this rule, called the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
 Jallianwala Bagh massacre
• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre or the Amritsar
Massacre took place when many villagers
gathered in the park for the celebration of
Baisakhi.
• The gatherers wanted to also peacefully protest
the arrest and deportation of two national
leaders, Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
• The Act was passed by the Rowlatt Committee, presided by Sir
Sydney Rowlatt. It authorized the arrest, for 2 years without
trial, of any person suspected of terrorism living in British India.
• Central Legislature introduced two bills that authorized police to
search a place without a search warrant and to arrest anyone
who they disapprove of.
• These bills came to be known as ‘Black Bills.’
• On the day of the festival of Baisakhi on 13th April 1919 in
Jallianwala Bagh, a public garden in Amritsar, a crowd of non-
violent protestors had gathered. Also, among the crowd were
pilgrims who had come to celebrate Baisakhi.
• General Dyer came there with his troops and blocked the only
narrow entrance to the garden.
• Then, without warning, he ordered his troops to fire at the
unarmed crowd, which included children as well.
• This tragedy came as a rude shock to Indians and totally
destroyed their faith in the British system of justice.
• The government set up the Hunter Commission to inquire into
the massacre. Although the commission condemned the act by
Dyer, it did not impose any disciplinary action against him.
• In protest against the massacre and the British failure to
give due justice to the victims, Rabindranath Tagore
gave up his knighthood and Gandhiji relinquished his
title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the British for
his services during the Boer War in South Africa.
• General Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in
London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre. Udham
Singh is believed to have witnessed the massacre as a
child.
 Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

• The Non-cooperation Movement was launched on

5th September 1920 by the Indian National Congress
(INC) under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
• In September 1920, in Congress session in Calcutta,
the party introduced the Non-Cooperation
programme.
• The period of the non-cooperation movement is
taken as September 1920 to February 1922.
• The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in the wake of a
series of events including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and was
called off because of Chauri Chaura incident of 1922.
• Mahatma Gandhi was the main force behind the non-cooperation
movement. In March 1920, he issued a manifesto declaring a
doctrine of the non-violent non-cooperation movement. Gandhi,
through this manifesto, wanted people to:
1. Adopt swadeshi principles
2. Adopt swadeshi habits including hand spinning & weaving
3. Work for the eradication of untouchability from society
• Gandhi travelled across the nation in 1921 explaining the tenets of
the movement.
 Non-Cooperation Movement

• The movement was essentially a peaceful and non-

violent protest against the British government in India.
• Indians were asked to relinquish their titles and resign
from nominated seats in the local bodies as a mark of
protest.
• People were asked to resign from their government
jobs.
• People were asked to withdraw their children from
government-controlled or aided schools and colleges.
• People were asked to boycott foreign goods and use only Indian-made
goods.
• People were asked to boycott the elections to the legislative councils.
• People were asked not to serve in the British army.
• It was also planned that if the above steps did not bring results, people
would refuse to pay their taxes.
• The INC also demanded Swarajya or self-government.
• Only completely non-violent means would be employed to get the demands
fulfilled.
• The non-cooperation movement was a decisive step in the independence
movement because, for the first time, the INC was ready to forego
constitutional means to achieve self-rule.
• Gandhiji had assured that Swaraj would be achieved in a year if this
movement was continued to completion.