Models of the Atom

• The impact of modern physics is

most evident in the development
of the atomic model of matter
• We use term atomic model to indicate
that we are trying to describe the key
features of the atom
• We do not know what an atom “looks
like”, because we have no
instruments for its direct observation.
 Model of the Atom
• Ancient Greeks
• Matter is made up of
particles, but not the
elements as we know them
today

• Four elemental substances

• Air, Fire, Earth, and Wind
 A Change of Thought

• Robert Boyle (1600’s)

• Identified gold and silver
as being elemental
• In other words, they
weren’t made up of air,
earth, fire, or wind
 Dalton’s Theory

• In 1700’s he theorized
that the basic unit of
matter is a tiny particle
called an atom.
 Dalton’s Theory
• All elements are composed
of indivisible atoms
• All atoms of a given
element are identical
• Atoms of different elements
are different
• Compounds are formed by
the combination of atoms of
different elements
 But Wait….

• Experimental studies of
the atom soon showed
that it (the atom) was
not indivisible… it has
smaller parts!
 Thomson’s Model
• Just over 100 years ago,
J. J. Thomson discovered
that electrons are
relatively low mass,
negatively charged
particles present in
atoms
• Because he knew that
atoms were electrically
neutral, he concluded
that part of the atom
must posses positive
charge equal to the
total charge of the
electrons
• He proposed a model in
which the atom consists
of a uniform distribution
of positive charge, in
which electrons are
embedded (like raisins in
plum pudding).
• “The Plum Pudding”
Model
Rutherford’s Model
 Rutherford’s Model
• Observations
• Most of the alpha particles pass
straight through the gold foil.
• Some of the alpha particles get
deflected by very small amounts.
• A very few get deflected greatly.
• Even fewer get bounced off the
foil and back to the left.
 Rutherford’s Model
• Conclusions
• The atom is 99.99% empty
space.
• The nucleus contains a
positive charge and most of
the mass of the atom.
• The nucleus is approximately
100,000 times smaller than
the atom.
Rutherford’s Model
 The Bohr Model

• While the Rutherford model

focused on describing the
nucleus, Niels Bohr turned his
attention to describing the
electron.
 The Bohr Model

• Neils Bohr proposed a

model showing a dense
nucleus with electrons in
surrounding orbitals
 The Bohr Model

• For electrons to stay in

orbit, they must have just
the right amount of energy
to keep it in place around
the nucleus.
 The Bohr Model

• The maximum number of

electrons in the first energy
level is two.

• The second level has a

maximum of eight electrons.
 The Wave Mechanical
Model
• The major difference between
the wave-mechanical model
and the Bohr model is found in
the manner in which the
electrons are pictured.
The Cloud Model
 The Wave Mechanical
Model
• An orbital is described
as a region in which an
electron is most likely to
be found.
 The Structure of The
Atom
• All atoms are composed
of a dense, positively
charged nucleus,
surrounded by a large
space occupied by
electrons.
 The Nucleus

• The nucleus contains two

types of particles

• Protons - with a positive

charge

• Neutrons - with no charge

 Subatomic Particles
• Protons have a mass of
1.67x10-24
-24 g

• Because the mass is so small, we

sometimes use atomic mass
units or amu

• A proton is assigned 1 amu.

• A neutron is approx. the same

 Subatomic Particles

• Each atom of a specific

element must contain the
same number of protons as
each other atom of that
element.
 Subatomic Particles

• The number of protons in

the nucleus of an atom is
the atomic number of
that element.
 Subatomic Particles
• Electrons
• are much less massive than
either the proton or the
neutron
• Have a charge equal to, but
opposite, a proton
• Occupy space outside the
nucleus
• Tape Demo
 Subatomic Particles

• The sum of the numbers

of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus is called
the mass number.
 Sample Problem

• Find the number of neutrons in an

atom of Selenium whose mass
number is 79.
 Chemistry Humor

• A neutron walked into

a restaurant and asked
how much for a drink.
The waiter replied,
"for you, no charge."
 Isotopes

• The atoms of a given

element must contain
the same number of
protons, but the number
of neutrons can vary.
 Isotopes
• For Example: Most atoms of
hydrogen contain 1 proton and no
neutrons
1H
1
1
1
• But some contain 1 proton and 1
neutron
2H
2
11
• Still others contain 1 proton and 2
neutrons
3H
3
11
• All three are still atoms of
hydrogen
 Isotopes

• Isotopes are atoms of the

same element that have
different numbers of
neutrons

• Thus, they have different

mass numbers.
 Isotope Symbols

• Isotopes can be identified

by using a symbol that
indicates both the element
and its mass number
• Examples
C-14 14
C
Carbon-14 6 C
14
 Mass Number

• The mass number must be an

integer.

mass number = atomic number +

neutrons
 Atomic Masses
• Why are the atomic masses on the
periodic table fractional values (i.e. not
integers)?

• Because… the atomic

masses are the
average mass of all the
naturally occurring
isotopes in a sample of
 Sample Problem

• Atomic mass of carbon

• on overhead

• Lab - “Modeling Isotopes”

• Page
• Homework: Review Questions 13-
20
 Location of Electrons -
Energy Levels
• Each electron has its own
distinct amount of energy that
corresponds with the energy
level it occupies.

• Electrons can gain or lose

energy and move to a different
energy level, but they do so in
a unique way….
• Electrons can only absorb a
“correct” amount of energy
that allows it to move to a
higher energy level

• These “packets of energy” are

photons of light.

• Different colors of light carry

different amounts of energy
• By convention there is
color,
by convention
sweetness,
by convention
bitterness,
but in reality there are
atoms and space. -
Democritus (400 BC)
Name this compound:
• Ba(Na)2

• answer: Banana.
• When electrons
occupy the
lowest available
orbital, the atom
is said to be in
the ground
state.
• When electrons are
subject to heat, light,
or electricity, an
electron may absorb
energy and
(temporarily) move to
a higher energy level.
This unstable condition
is called an excited
state.
• When the electron returns to a
lower level it emits energy in
the form of infrared,
ultraviolet, or visible light.

• While the light appears as one

color to our eyes, it is actually
composed of many different
wavelengths (or colors of light)
• Because each atom has
its own distinct orbital
energy levels, each atom
has its own distinct
pattern of emission lines
(also known as bright line
spectrum), that can be
used to identify
elements.
• Astronomy
 The Bohr Model
•• Bohr
Bohr built
built upon
upon
spectroscopic
spectroscopic observations
observations
of
of atoms.
atoms. Spectroscopists
Spectroscopists
noticed
noticed that
that anan atom
atom cancan
only
only absorb
absorb certain
certain energies
energies
(colors)
(colors) of
of light
light (the
(the
absorption
absorption spectrum)
spectrum) andand
once
once excited
excited cancan only
only Emission Spectrum
release
release certain
certain energies
energies
(the
(the emission
emission spectrum)
spectrum)
and
and these
these energies
energies happen
happen
to
to be
be the
the same.
same. BohrBohr used
used
these
these observations
observations to to argue
argue
that
that the
the energy
energy of of a
a bound
bound Absorption Spectrum
electron
electron isis "quantized."
"quantized."
 The Bohr Model
•• In
In the
the animation,
animation, you you will
will see
see a a
model
model of of aa Hydrogen
Hydrogen atom atom andand toto
the right of it, a Bohr energy
the right of it, a Bohr energy level level
diagram.
diagram.
•• In
In the
the animation
animation you you will
will notice
notice
that
that if the energy of the photon of
if the energy of the photon of
light
light is
is just
just right,
right, it it will
will cause
cause the the
electron
electron to to jump
jump to to a a higher
higher
level.
level.
•• When
When the the electron
electron jumps jumps back
back
down,
down, a a photon
photon is is created
created for for
each
each jump
jump down.
down.
•• A
A photon
photon without
without the the right
right
amount
amount of of energy
energy (the (the pink
pink one)
one)
passes
passes through
through the the atom
atom with
with no no
effect.
effect.
•• Photons
Photons with with too
too much
much energy
energy will will
cause
cause thethe electron
electron to to be
be ejected
ejected
which
which ionizes
ionizes the the atom.
atom. An An
ionized Get out your reference tables and find the
ionized electron is said to be
electron is said to be inin hydrogen and mercury energy level
the
the n=infinity
n=infinity energyenergy level.
level. diagrams.
•• Keep
Keep in in mind
mind thatthat these
these rings
rings areare
not
not actually
actually orbits,
orbits, but but are
are levels
levels
that
that represent
represent the the location
location of of an
an
electron
electron wave.
wave. The The number
number n n
corresponds to the number of
 The Bohr Model

• Ephoton
photon
= Einitial
initial
- Efinal
final
(reference
tables)
• This formula can be used to
determine the energy of the photon
emitted (+) or absorbed(-).
 Sample Problem
• Calculate the energy of the photon that is emitted when a
hydrogen atom changes from energy state n=3 to n=2.
What color corresponds with the photon emitted?
• Solution
•• From
From reference
reference tables…
tables…
E
E33 =
=EEinitial = -1.51 eV
initial = -1.51 eV
E
E22 =
=EEfinal = -3.40 eV
final = -3.40 eV

E
Ephoton = E initial –– E
photon = Einitial Efinal = (-3.40 eV) – (-1.51 eV) = -1.89 eV
final = (-3.40 eV) – (-1.51 eV) = -1.89 eV

E
Ephoton = hf
photon = hf
====
==== ff =
=EEphoton /h
photon / h

But
But we
we need
need E Ephoton in Joules, because Planck’s constant is in Joules
photon in Joules, because Planck’s constant is in Joules
E
Ephoton = (-1.89 eV) (1.60x10-19
photon = (-1.89 eV) (1.60x10
-19J / eV) = 3.02x10-19
J / eV) = 3.02x10-19 JJ

ff =
= (3.02x10 -19 J) / (6.63x10-34
(3.02x10-19 J) / (6.63x10-34 J∙s)
J∙s) =
= 4.56x10 14 Hz
4.56x1014 Hz

From
From reference
reference tables,
tables, this
this frequency
frequency corresponds
corresponds with
with red
red light.
light.
 The Bohr Model
• Summary of the Bohr Model

•• All
All forms
forms of
of energy
energy are
are quantized.
quantized. AnAn electron
electron can
can gain
gain or
or
lose
lose kinetic
kinetic energy
energy only
only in
in fixed
fixed amounts,
amounts, or
or quanta.
quanta.

•• The
The electron
electron inin the
the hydrogen
hydrogen atom
atom can
can occupy
occupy only
only certain
certain
specific
specific orbits
orbits of
of fixed
fixed radius
radius and
and no
no others.
others.

•• The
The electron
electron can
can jump
jump from
from one
one orbit
orbit to
to a
a higher
higher one
one by
by
absorbing
absorbing aa quantum
quantum of
of energy
energy in
in the
the form
form of
of a
a photon.
photon.

•• Each
Each allowed
allowed orbit
orbit in
in the
the atom
atom corresponds
corresponds to
to a
a specific
specific
amount
amount ofof energy.
energy. The
The orbit
orbit nearest
nearest the
the nucleus
nucleus represents
represents
the
the smallest
smallest amount
amount of of energy
energy that
that the
the electron
electron can
can have.
have.
Bohr Model Vocabulary
• When the electron is in the lowest
energy level (n=1), it is said to be in the
ground state.
• An electron in any level above the
ground state is said to be in an excited
state.
• A spectral line is a particular
frequency of absorbed or emitted
energy characteristic of an atom
•• The
The cloud
The Cloud Model
cloud model
model represents
represents a a
sort
sort of
of history
history of of where
where the
the
electron has probably
electron has probably been been
and
and where
where it it is
is likely
likely to
to be
be
going.
going.
•• The
The red
red dot
dot inin the
the middle
middle
represents
represents the the nucleus
nucleus while
while
the
the red
red dot
dot around
around the the outside
outside
represents
represents an an instance
instance of of the
the
electron.
electron.
•• Imagine,
Imagine, as as the
the electron
electron
moves
moves it it leaves
leaves a a trace
trace of
of
where it was. This collection
where it was. This collection
of
of traces
traces quickly
quickly begins
begins toto
resemble
resemble a a cloud.
cloud.
•• The
The probable
probable locations
locations of of the
the
electron
electron predicted
predicted by by
Schrödinger's
Schrödinger's equation
equation
happen
happen to to coincide
coincide withwith the
the
locations
locations specified
specified in in Bohr's
Bohr's
model.
model.