Water Harvesting

Technology Prepared
by: Tamirat M.
(Lecturer)
Definition of Water harvesting technology
 Water harvesting, in broad sense, can be defined as the 'collection of
runoff for productive uses'.
 process of collecting natural precipitation from catchments (rooftops
and land surfaces as well as from intermittent or ephemeral
watercourses) for beneficial use.
 the process of concentrating precipitation through runoff and storing it
for beneficial use.
 Rainwater harvesting is the process of direct collection of rainwater
and the generated surface runoff out of it.
 The conservation of rainwater refers to storing of the collected
rainwater for direct use or for recharging the ground water.
 The collection and management of floodwater or rain water runoff to
increase water availability for domestic and agricultural use as well as
ecosystem sustenance.
Thus rainwater harvesting and conservation aims at optimum
utilization of the natural resource.
 Rainwater, which is the first form of water obtained from
the hydrologic cycle is known as the primary source of water.
 On the other hand, the rivers, lakes and underground
reservoirs are the secondary sources of water.
In present times, in absence of rainwater harvesting and
conservation, we depend entirely on such secondary sources of
water and in the process it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate
source that feeds to these secondary sources.
-The value of this important primary source of water must not be
lost. Rainwater harvesting and conservation mean to understand
the value of rain and to make the optimum use of rainwater at
the place where it falls.
History of Water Harvesting
 Various forms of water harvesting (WH) have been used
traditionally through centuries.
 Some of them, as practiced across the Middle East in ancient
agriculture, were based on techniques such as diversion of
‘wadi’ flow (spate flow from normall Vs dry watercourses)
onto agricultural fields.
 WH systems dating back 4000 years or more have been
discovered in the Negev Desert of Israel. These schemes
involved the clearing of hillsides from vegetation to increase
runoff, which was then directed to fields in the plains.
 Floodwater farming was in practice in the desert areas of
Arizona and northwest New Mexico for last 1000 years.
 The Hopi Indians on the Colorado Plateau were carrying out
crop production in the fields situated at the mouth of
ephemeral streams. These fields, where the streams fan out,
are called "Akchin".
 Micro-catchment techniques used in southern Tunisia for
growing trees were discovered in the nineteenth century by
some travelers.
 In "Khadin" system of India, floodwater was impounded at the
upstream of earthen bund sand crops were grown at the
points of infiltration under residual soil moisture.
 In the early 20th century, the primary focus of conservation
agencies was soil erosion control aimed at reducing soil losses;
this progressed to soil and water conservation, based
particularly on structural measures (terraces; gabion weirs
etc.).
 The harvesting of runoff that went with some soil conservation
measures was more or less a side-effect whose potential was
unappreciated. Furthermore, the success of the green
revolution, based on hybrid seeds, inorganic fertilizers and
pesticides, resulted in a rapid expansion of irrigated areas –
and this was seen as the ”modern” way forward to improving
agricultural water management.
 However, this expansion soon reached its limits due to over-
abstraction, declining water resources and salinization, which
led to further impoverishment and in some situations to
conflicts. Furthermore, the ecological problems associated with
dam building became barriers to new construction.
 Water scarcity and the widespread droughts in Africa led to a
growing awareness of the potential of water harvesting for
improved crop production in the 1970s.
 After a quieter period in the late 1980s, water harvesting again
became the subject of study and project implementation at
the turn of the century, and indigenous practices regained
credence.
 In China today, water harvesting is seen as a major component
in reducing the rural exodus and controlling severe soil erosion
and is subject of dedicated projects, aimed at helping millions
of people
Benefits of Water Harvesting
System
A water harvesting system offers the following benefits:
 In arid and semi-arid regions, water harvesting is a guarantee of optimum
crop production when no other source of water is available for irrigation.
 Can provide water to take care of the irregularities of rainfall and
supplement the soil moisture deficiency for increasing and stabilizing crop
production. As the cropping risk is reduced, application of organic or
inorganic fertilizers becomes economically viable resulting in increase of
the potential yields.
 Can meet water needs for domestic uses and livestock consumption where
public supplies are not available.
 The extent of arid areas suffering from desertification increases due to want
of water harvesting. The provision of water harvesting in those areas helps
increase vegetative cover and consequently environmental degradation is
checked. It has been also found effective in recharging the groundwater
aquifers.
 Water harvesting is a low-external-input technology and not difficult to
implement. With few exceptions, it does not require use of pumps or input
of energy to convey or apply harvested water.
The implementation of water harvesting may however have a
number of detrimental effects as follows:
 Increase soil erosion when slopes are cleared to promote
runoff
 Loss of habitat of flora and fauna due to clearance of slope
 Loss of habitat of flora and fauna in depressions (temporary
wetlands)
 Conflicts among people living upstream and downstream of
watershed for the use of harvested water
 Conflicts between farmers and herders in dry environment
when the harvested water is used for livestock.
Components of Rainwater Harvesting
Regardless of the purpose and type, all water harvesting systems have
the following components
 Catchment Area: Catchment area, watershed and drainage basin
are the synonymous terminologies used in rainwater harvesting.
It is the geographical area that contributes runoff, resulting from
precipitation, which passes through a single point into a water
harvesting unit, a large stream, a river, lake or an ocean. Therefore, it
is also called as the runoff area.
The catchment may be only a few hectares for small ponds or
hundreds of square kilometers for large streams, rivers.
After all, each catchment area is an independent hydrologic unit and
any change made in its land use affects the runoff yield of the
catchment.
Conveyance system:
 This is where runoff is conveyed through gutters, pipes (in
case of rooftop WH) or overland, rill, gully or channel flow
and either diverted onto cultivated fields (where water is
stored in the soil) or into specifically designed storage
facilities.
Storage Facility:
 Water harvesting systems are not only for storing water to
meet the crop water requirement but also for meeting the
demand of households and livestock consumption.
 The storage facility refers to the structure where harvested
runoff is held until it is used by crops, animals or people.
 Water may be stored on the ground for example in ponds
and reservoirs, in the soil profile as moisture or recharged
into the underground aquifers.
Target:
 The target groups of a water harvesting system may be the plants,
animals or human beings.
 They are the end users of the system. While in agriculture, the
target group is comprised of plants and animals, it is the people and
their needs in domestic use.
Complex or large scale water harvesting systems usually have
additional components for conveying and diverting runoff water to the
target and/or storage facility.
Figure 1. Major components of a typical water
harvesting system
IMPACT OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND ADAPTATION
MEASURES
 According to the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, the average temperature of the Earth’s
surface rose by 0.7°C during the 20th century and is expected
to increase by an average of about 3°C over the course of the
21st century, assuming greenhouse gas emissions continue to
rise at current rates (Bates et al., 2008).
 Even the minimum predicted temperature increase, 1.4°C, will
represent a profound change that is unprecedented in the last
10 000 years. The predicted changes in global climate include
not only a rise in air temperature but also changes in rainfall
regimes and a significant increase in the number of extreme
weather events, such as stronger storms, longer droughts, and
prolonged flooding (Table 1).
Extreme rainfall events may also destroy water harvesting
structures. Climate change will require better management of
rainwater, including water harvesting for domestic and
agricultural purposes (ACPC, 2011; UNEP, 2009
Chapter 2 Hydrological Aspects of Water Harvesting
2.1 Introduction
 Assessment of available water quantity and quality of an area is the
prime importance in planning, designing, and operation of water
resource projects. Such projects may vary in size from micro- to
macro-scale, depending on water supply and demand
characteristics.
 Water supply is harnessed from surface water and groundwater
sources.
-Surface water is mainly available in glaciers, lakes, rivers, and
reservoirs of various scales.
-Similarly, groundwater is available in unconfined, semi-confined,
confined aquifers of different yield potentials depending on aquifer
materials.
 Part of the precipitation is harvested in the aforementioned natural
and man-made structures to meet the future water demand during
deficit periods.
 Water demand is mainly from agricultural, industrial, and municipal
sectors where agricultural demand comprises more than 80% of the
total demand.
 With the recent industrialization and population growth in towns/cities
of the country, the conflict between the aforementioned water-use
sectors is of prime concern.
 Further discussion in this lesson is focused on surface water supply for
meeting the demand in agricultural sector.
Fig. 2.1 illustrates the basic factors considered in planning water
harvesting interventions in the agricultural system.
 The meteorological parameters such as temperature, rainfall and
evaporative demand of the atmosphere greatly affect the system
hydrology. The likely future impacts of climate change on hydrological
regimes also have to be taken into account.
Fig. 2.1. Basic factors considered in planning water harvesting interventions.
(Source: Oweis et al., 2012)
2.2 Hydrological Cycle and Water Balance

 Water is available in many places and many phases above, on

and below the ground surface. The transformation of water
from one phase to another and its movement from one location
to another in a closed system constitute the hydrological cycle.
The total amount of water in the hydrosphere remains
constant.
 Water balances can be drawn up for a region or for an
individual catchment to assess the water availability in space
and time, based on which optimal water allocation policy for
the agricultural production system can be established.
Fig. 2.2 shows the relationship between the various forms of water
storage and water movement in a small catchment.
The perceptible water in the atmosphere (Wi-W0)
 is transformed and falls on the ground surface as precipitation
(P) and part of it will infiltrate into the soil (F),
 while the other part may find its way as overland flow (Q0) into
the channels networks.
 Water is transferred from the land and plant surfaces to the
atmosphere by evaporation (E) or through vegetation by
means of transpiration (T).
If rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration rate of soil or if the
upper most parts of the soil matrix are saturated,
 rainwater will be collected in puddles and
 then overland flow occurs on the land surface as surface
runoff.
 A portion of runoff may infiltrate into the ground or
 may evaporate returning to the atmosphere.
Fig. 2.2. Small catchment-scale relationship between various forms of water
and its movement. (Source: Oweiset al., 2012)
 During and following precipitation soil moisture in the unsaturated
subsurface zone is replenished by the process of infiltration.

 Once the upper soil layers are largely saturated, water will percolate
down to the deeper layers, recharging the groundwater (G).

 Some will also flow laterally through the soil (Q i), known as interflow,
into the channel network and contributes to stream flow during dry
periods.

 During prolonged dry periods, soil moisture may be replenished

through capillary contribution (C) from shallow groundwater table.

 Overland flow, interflow and groundwater contribution (Q g) are all

combined and modified in the channel or river network to form the
runoff from the catchment.
2.3 SMALL HYDROLOGICAL WATERSHED MODEL
 Hydrological modeling tool in small watersheds may be used to
assess the amount of water available for agricultural purposes.
 Irrigation water that infiltrates into the soil first enters the crop root
zone. This water may return back to the atmosphere through
evapotranspiration.
 This upper root-zone can hold a limited quantity of water, depending
on the field capacity of soil (the amount of water that a soil retains
after drainage under gravity).
 If water is added further to the zone when it is at field capacity, the
water percolates down to the saturated or groundwater zone. Water
leaves the ground water zone by capillary action into the root zone or
by seepage into streams.
2.4 Hydrological Characteristics
 The hydrological characteristics of a region are determined largely
by its climate, topography, soil and geology. Key climatic factors
are the depth, intensity and frequency of rainfall and the effects of
temperature and humidity on evapotranspiration.
2.4.1 Evapotranspiration
 Evaporation and transpiration are decisive elements in the design
of a water harvesting system.
 Precipitation deposited on vegetation eventually evaporates and
quantity of water reaching the soil surface is correspondingly less.
 Evaporation and transpiration are indicative of changes in the
moisture level of a basin.
 Estimates of these factors are also used in determining water supply
requirements of proposed irrigation projects.
 Consumptive water use: is the total actual evapotranspiration from an
area plus the water used directly in building plant tissue.
 Evapotranspiration is strongly related to the density of plant coverage and
its stages of development.
2.4.2 Precipitation
 Precipitation results from condensation of moisture in the atmosphere. The
term denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere.
 The usual forms are rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost and dew. Of all these, only
the first two contribute significant amount of water.
 Rainfall is the predominant form of precipitation causing stream flow. The
following are key terms used for rainfall analysis.
 Rainfall intensity is the quantity of rain falling in a given time over an area
and can be expressed in terms of cm/h or mm/h
 Rainfall duration is the time during which a rainfall event takes place.
 Frequency of a rainfall is the frequency with which a given amount of rain
occurs over a given period, for example, once in four year or once in six
year, etc.
 Magnitude of rainfall is the total amount of rain falling at a point over a
given period of time, i.e. daily, monthly, annually.
2.4.3 Frequency Analysis and Design Rainfall
 Frequency analysis can be used to estimate the frequency of
occurrence of past events, on the probability of occurrence of future
events.
 Rainfall is a continuous random variable, varying with time (stochastic
variable) and can take any value greater than or equal to zero.
Exceedance probability is the probability that the rainfall will be
greater than or equal to a given value.
- For example, if the exceedance probability of 300 mm annual rainfall
for a given location is 20%, one can expect that on an average the
occurrence of annual rainfall equal or exceeds 300mm is one in five
years.
 The return period or recurrence interval is the average time between
occurrences of an event with a certain magnitude or greater. The
return period T is related to exceedance probability, Peas follows;
Pe=1/T (2.1)
 Thus, for example, if the exceedance probability of a 250 mm annual
rainfall for an area is 67%, the annual rainfall may equal or exceed
250 mm twice in a three year period.
For water harvesting purposes, frequency analysis is usually performed
for annual and monthly rainfall data. Frequency analysis is made by
plotting rainfall amounts against their cumulative probability, Pc.
 The relationship between Pe and Pc is:
Pe =1- Pc (2.2)
 For example, the Pe of zero annual rainfall in any location is 100%,
therefore, Pc=0.
Plotting rainfall against Pe or Pc can be done in various ways. For water
harvesting, it is sufficient to use the Weibull plotting position formula,
because the required design value for rainfall lies within the range of the
data. The Weibull formula is:
Pe= m/(N+1) (2.3)
Where, m = rank of the event, m=1 for the largest value, and N =
number of rainfall events or sample size.
 For example, Table 2.1 presents the annual rainfall for 22 years
ranked in descending order and its third column contains the
exceedance probability based on Eqn. 2.3.
 The design rainfall is the amount of rainfall that is expected to be
equaled or exceeded at a selected level of dependability.
 In Table 2.1, the design annual rainfall at a 70% exceedance
probability or dependability is 155 mm. This means that annual
rainfall is expected to be 155 mm or more in 7 years out of 10.
Similarly, design monthly or weekly rainfall can be evaluated. Usually
67% probability of exceedance is taken for the design of agricultural
water harvesting systems.
Table 2.1. Frequency analysis of annual rainfall using Weibull plotting
Position method (Source: Oweiset al., 2012)
Rainfall (mm) Rank (m) Pe (%)
399 1 4

387 2 9

335 3 13

315 4 17

293 5 22

291 6 26

249 7 30

244 8 35

238 9 39

235 10 43

223 11 48

213 12 52

194 13 57

182 14 61

174 15 65
155 16 70

154 17 74

150 18 78

109 19 83

106 20 87

98 21 91

93 22 96
2.5 RAINFALL–RUNOFF RELATIONSHIP
Surface runoff is generated when the rainfall intensity exceeds the
infiltration capacity of soil for a period of time enough to get the soil
surface saturated and puddled. Runoff is a function of many interrelated
factors, such as soil type, soil moisture content, topography, land cover,
and rainfall characteristics (intensity-time distribution).
2.5.1 Factors affecting runoff
2.5.1.1 Soil type
 Coarse textured soils have stable structures and exhibit high
infiltration rates, thus resulting in little or no runoff.
 Fine textured soils swell when wetted and shrink and crack upon
drying.
 Infiltration rate is high initially, but falls rapidly to very low levels as
the soil is wetted.
 Soils containing around 20% clay are highly prone to surface sealing,
resulting in a crust or cap that makes the soil surface almost
impervious.
It is very important to take all these soil factors into consideration when
planning and designing a water harvesting system.
2.5.1.2 Rainfall characteristics
Intensity, duration and frequency are the most important characteristics
of rainfall for water harvesting.
 In dry areas, runoff-producing storms are usually of high intensity and
short duration.
 The kinetic energy of falling drops is proportional to raindrop sizes and
the total kinetic energy of a rainfall event increases with the increase
of rainfall intensity. High-intensity rainfall breaks down soil aggregates
at the soil surface, filling pores with fine particles. As a result, soil
surface sealing develops which reduces infiltration and induces runoff.
Therefore, runoff coefficients from intense, short-duration rainstorms
are usually greater than those from less intense rainstorms having the
same depth of rainfall.
2.6.1.3 Land cover
 Surface roughness and vegetation impede surface water flow and
increase surface storage capacity. Vegetative cover also protects the
soil surface from the destructive effect of the falling raindrops. This
reduces the development of crusting and soil surface sealing and
hence reduces runoff
2.5.1.4 Slope of the micro-catchment
Generally, runoff increases with increasing slope angle. This is mainly
because less water is retained on the soil surface (SSC), and because the
surface water flows more quickly towards the outlet, and hence less is lost
by evaporation and infiltration in the catchment.
2.5.1.5 Size and shape of the micro-catchment
The runoff coefficient generally decreases with the increase in micro-
catchment size and/or length of slope.
In a water harvesting system, rainfall induces surface flow on the runoff
area, which preferably has a bare, crusted, and smooth surface. At the
lower end of the slope, runoff water is collected in the target area. As rain
starts to fall, part of the rainwater will be lost by infiltration in the runoff
area, some where the water collects in shallow depressions, but also from
soaking into the soil as it runs off. Besides runoff water, the target area
also receives direct rainfall.
 For macro-catchment, the rainfall-runoff process is extremely
complex due to the large variation of natural conditions over the
vast area of the runoff producing catchment (see Figure 2.7).
 Among these natural conditions/factors are the great variations,
over the catchment, in soil type, topography, land cover, and land
use.
 Therefore, it is important to monitor the response of the macro-
catchment to major rainstorms by measuring the runoff at carefully
selected gauging stations along the flow path of runoff (Figures 2.6 and
2.7).
 While the rainfall is infiltrating and runoff is being collected in the
target area, some water will evaporate from the open water surface,
but the major portion infiltrates and is stored in the root zone (Boers,
1994).
2.5.2 Runoff models suitable for water harvesting
Rainfall–runoff models aim to describe surface runoff as a function of
rainfall (Beven, 2000).
Model parameters are adjusted to a specific location and field conditions.
Various methods are used to determine the relationship between rainfall
and runoff (Tauer & Humborg, 1992), but most are suitable only for
estimating surface runoff from large catchments. Here we focus on
methods for estimating surface runoff from small catchments.
2.6.2.1 Runoff models for micro-catchment water harvesting
o As rain falls, the soil surface water content gradually increases until it
reaches a limit that depends on rainfall intensity.
o If rainfall intensity is less than the minimum infiltration capacity of the soil
(the saturated hydraulic conductivity, P) or the rainfall duration is short, the
soil surface layer will not become saturated and water will not pool on the
soil surface.
o However, if rainfall intensity is higher, the soil surface will become saturated.
Once the soil surface is saturated the rate of infiltration becomes less than
the rainfall intensity and water will pool on the soil surface. When puddles
and other depressions are filled (surface storage), surface runoff starts
(Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8 shows the response of a soil system under three different rainstorms.
 Storm 1 does not saturate the soil surface because the intensity is less than
the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil, P.
 The second storm, also, does not produce runoff because the duration
intensity that exceeded P was relatively short.
 Storm 3, however, saturates the soil surface by time ts , satisfies the surface
storage and generates surface runoff. Surface runoff has started at tr and
ended at te as indicated in the Figure. A curve for cumulative runoff is also
shown. Between ts and tr , the surface storage capacity (SSC) has been
filled.
Threshold rain, TR, is defined as the total rainfall depth measured from the
onset of the rainstorm until the start of surface runoff flow.

Figure 2.9 shows one way to partition the rainwater on a micro-catchment

into many components, based on a steady (i.e. constant intensity, R)
rainstorm of duration T.
 Components 1, 2 and 3 are respectively the first, second and third
terms in the right hand side of equation (2.4).
 Component 4 represents the amount of excess rainwater at any point
in the micro-catchment.
 Component 5 represents infiltration, during rain, between tr and T.
 Since the distance water travels in the micro-catchment of water
harvesting is small and thus negligible, no allowance is made for
routing surface runoff flow. Therefore, excess rainwater at all points in
the micro-catchment is summed and taken as the generated runoff.
 Component 3 represents surface storage, which will eventually
infiltrate into the soil when the rain ceases or when the rain intensity
becomes less than the infiltration capacity of the soil.
 Therefore, infiltration plays the major role in determining the
amount of surface runoff.
 However, infiltration is a very complex phenomenon and
extremely difficult to describe. It depends on numerous
interacting physical, chemical, and biological factors, some of
which are still unknown.
 There are many models (empirical, physical, and numerical) to
describe the behavior of the system (Hachum & Alfaro, 1980).
 However, factors affecting this system and its outcome, particularly
prior soil moisture content, soil cover, and soil structure, are
continuously changing during the growing season.
 Very few data on rainfall intensity and duration are available,
especially in dry areas. Furthermore, it is extremely difficult, if not
impossible, to predict the intensity and duration of future rainstorms.
Therefore, the only rational way to estimate surface runoff for water
harvesting purposes is based on the depth of rainfall (daily, monthly,
or yearly).
 The runoff coefficient is defined as the ratio of the amount of runoff to
the amount of rainfall. For a single storm, as shown in Figure 2.9, the
runoff coefficient (RC) can be expressed as follows:
 By selecting a reasonable value for TR and assuming component 5 is
very small (≈zero), one can get a maximum limiting value for RC in a
given area.
 For example, if the depth of the rainstorm in Figure 2.9 is 10 mm and
TR is taken as 4 mm, then the maximum value for RC is 0.60.
 For more rigorous, yet empirical, analysis, TR and component 5 can
be estimated to improve the evaluation of RC value. This will require
knowing the infiltration function and assuming that the uniform rain
rate equals depth of rainstorm divided by its duration. Procedures to
estimate TR and component 5 are available (Hachum & Alfaro,
1980).
 For illustrative purposes, Figure 2.10 shows the runoff coefficient for
a 10 mm rainstorm falling at various uniform intensities and for two
SSCs (0 and 2 mm). Daily rainfall represents the sum of all
rainstorms during the 24 hours of the day.
 However, for the purposes of the present analysis, the rainstorm
depth in equations (2.5) and (2.7) will be taken as the daily rainfall.
 In small catchments, most of runoff is in the form of sheet
flow, and hence runoff plots under controlled conditions may
be used to measure runoff under rainfall of differing
intensities.
 The plot must be representative for the area to be developed
for water harvesting. It is advisable to experiment on plots of
various sizes (slope lengths) and slope angles. Critchley and
Siegert (1991) proposed a layout, materials, and procedure for
testing runoff. At least two years of measurements are
required to arrive at representative values for RC.
 Overestimation of RC may result in reduced crop yields or crop
failure due to water shortages (Rees et al., 1991).
 Underestimation of RC results in setting aside more land than
necessary as catchment areas and endangering the safety of
the water harvesting system structures.
 The effect of excess moisture varies according to the crop.
Millet, for example, can tolerate drought but not water logging
but maize does not tolerate either.
2.5.2.2 Runoff models for macro-catchment water harvesting
Models suited to long-slopes water harvesting and floodwater harvesting
include the unit hydrograph, the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) curve
number, and the rainfall excess model.
The first two methods are relatively simple, standard, well documented and
can be found in most textbooks on hydrology and water-resources systems
engineering.
The third method is not as well known and is more complex. A brief
description of the first two methods is given below. More details and
description of procedures for these methods may be found elsewhere (NRCS,
2008; Linsley et al., 1982; Chow et al., 1988).
Unit hydrograph method
 The unit hydrograph method is still frequently used to determine runoff,
despite many limiting factors.
 A hydrograph is a graph of discharge passing a particular point on a
stream, plotted as a function of time.
 A unit hydrograph is a graph of the direct runoff of 1 mm of effective
rainfall distributed uniformly over the basin area (catchment) at a
uniform rate during a storm of particular duration.
 The unit hydrograph is assumed to be representative of the runoff
process for a watershed.
 Fig. 2.5. Typical 6-h unit hydrograph.
(Source: http://static5.theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/clip_
image0022.jpg)
 The method is based on following three postulates:
− Constant duration of flow for a given drainage basin; the duration of
flow depends on the duration of rainfall and not on its intensity.
− Linearity for rain of equal duration but of different intensity; runoff is
proportional to the rainfall intensity.
− Superposition; runoff caused by several periods of rainfall can be
superimposed.
The unit hydrograph should be derived from as many peak flows as
possible. Monthly and annual mean or total flow is used to display the
record of past runoff at a station.
One limitation of the unit hydrograph method is the assumption that
storms occur with uniform intensity over the entire drainage basin. A
unit hydrograph derived from a single storm may not be representative,
and it is, therefore, desirable to average unit hydrographs from several
storms of about same duration.
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method
 The US Soil Conservation Service developed the curve number
method to estimate the effect of land treatment and land use
changes upon runoff (NRCS, 2008).
 It has been widely accepted and used as the method of choice for
planning and design of soil and water conservation interventions.
 The popularity of this method is due to its simplicity, predictability,
stability, and its responsiveness to watershed properties affecting
runoff.
 The parameters used aim to quantify physical processes, although
they may not be directly measurable. They usually represent
spatially averaged catchment characteristics, such as surface cover
type and conditions, soil type, and others.
 An important feature of the curve number method is that the
proportion of rainfall converted into runoff (runoff efficiency)
increases with the rainfall depth
Chapter 3 Methods and techniques in water harvesting

3.1 INTRODUCTION

• Water harvesting is either for plant production or to provide

water for human and animal consumption or for groundwater
recharge.
• This chapter provides a general overview of the methods and
techniques currently used to harvest water for agricultural and
domestic purposes.
 3.2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF WATER HARVESTING METHODS

 classifications of water harvesting methods is based on the size of

the catchment, i.e. micro-catchments and macro catchments.
3.3 MICRO-CATCHMENT WATER HARVESTING METHODS
 surface runoff is collected from a small catchment area, where sheet
flow prevails over short distances.
 Runoff water is usually applied to an adjacent agricultural area to be
stored in the root zone and used directly by plants, or may be stored in
a tank or cistern (in the case of roof top systems) for later use.
 The size of the catchment may range from few square meters to over
1000 m2 .
 The catchment surface may be natural, cleared or treated (with
chemicals/ compacted) to induce more runoff, or may consist of roofing
material, plastic cover, or concrete.
 Micro-catchment systems are simple in design and may be constructed
at low cost.
 They are thus easily replicable and adaptable.
 They have higher runoff efficiency than macro-catchment systems and
no water conveyance system is needed.
 Soil erosion is controlled and sediment directed to settle in the
cultivated area.
 There are micro-catchment systems suitable to any slope and crop.
 The most important advantage: is that the farmer has the control
within his farm over both the catchment and the target areas, which is
not usually possible in the case of macro-catchments.
 However, the catchment in this system occupies part of the farm area,
and farmers will accept this only in drier environments.
 These systems generally require continuous maintenance and have
relatively high labor requirements.
3.3.1 Rooftop and courtyard systems
 Rainfall collected from rooftops is mainly used for drinking, especially
in rural areas where tap water is seldom found (Worm & van Hattum,
2006).
 Between 80% and 85% of all measurable rain can be collected and
stored.
 Water harvested from rooftops can be stored in tanks, jars, or
underground cisterns.
3.3.1.1 Suitable surfaces
 Any roofing material is acceptable for collecting water.
 lead should not be used in these systems. Galvanized, corrugated iron
sheets, corrugated plastic and tiles make good roof catchment
surfaces (Thomas & Martinson, 2007).
 Flat cement-covered roofs are suitbalbe. Small damages may,
however, cause health problems.
 Concrete aprons, such as at airports, and roads can be used to harvest
water for irrigation or for recharging groundwater supplies
 roofs should be kept clean and water quality must be carefully
monitored if it is to be used for drinking and domestic purposes.
3.3.1.2 Issues to be addressed
 The greatest limitation is the cost of the design and construction (or
purchase) of the storage facility.
 Much of the water that could be harvested may also be lost if the
gutters are too small to handle the flow.
 Care must be taken to avoid contaminating water that will be
consumed by humans or animals.
 It may be necessary to pass the runoff through a sand filter to
increase the water quality, especially where the quality of the
harvested water is questionable.
 Air-borne insecticides and other pesticides and fertilizer may
contaminate harvested water but the risk can be minimized by
carefully choosing the location for the water harvesting structure.
 Storage structures should be kept as clean as possible and should be
fenced to avoid access of domestic animals.
 They should also be covered to minimize evaporation and keep out
animals such as mosquitoes and rodents.
3.3.2 On-farm systems
3.3.2.1 Inter-row water harvesting
 is used either on flat land or on gentle slopes of up to 4% having
soil at least 1 m deep. It is suitable for areas with more than 200
mm average rainfall per year. This system has two advantages:
1. It is the only water harvesting technique that can be used on
absolutely flat land.
2. The construction can be fully mechanized.
On flat terrain (0–1% inclination) bunds or ridges are constructed and
compacted using rollers or tractors.
catchment-to-cropping-area ratio (CCR) ranges from 1:1 to 5:1.
 Ridge height ranges from 30 to 100 cm and ridge spacing ranges
from 1.2 to 10 m, depending on soil surface treatment, rainfall, and
crop to be grown. Runoff is collected between the ridges and
supplies a crop, but surplus water can be directed to a reservoir at
the lower end of the system for storage and later use (see Figure
4.5).
 Constructing the ridges may require large amounts of labor or
machine input.
 The catchment area should be weeded and compacted regularly.
The crop area should also be weeded to minimize competition for
water. Crops commonly grown using this system include maize,
beans, millet, grapes, and olives. Under this relatively high cost
system, high value crops, such as fruit trees and vegetables, are
more recommended.
 The cropped strips are cultivated every year. The catchment strip may
be cleared and compacted to improve runoff. In addition to the
advantage of concentrating available water on the cropped strips,
agricultural inputs are also concentrated on a fraction of the total land
area. By continuously cultivating the cropped strip, soil fertility and
structure improves and land become more productive.
However, one problem that farmers may face is that the distribution of
water across the cropped strip may not be uniform.
To avoid this problem it is recommended that the cultivated strip should
be no more than 2 m wide.
3.3.2.2 Negarim
 Negarims are small, diamond-shaped basins surrounded by low
earth bunds (25 cm high). They are oriented such that the diagonal
of the diamond is parallel to the slope of the land.
 The sides of the diamonds are commonly 5−20 m long, giving an
area of 25–400 m2 . The size of the catchment and cropped area
depends on the water requirement of the tree or bush species to be
planted, land slope, soil type, and rainfall characteristics.
 This technique should be applied in regions with 150 to 500 mm
rainfall. This technique and its variations are widely used in arid and
semi-arid regions of the world, especially in sub-Saharan Africa.
 constructed on almost any slope.
 However, soil erosion may occur on slopes greater than 10%.
 The CCR ranges from 1:1 to 25:1.
 Soil conservation is a positive side effect of negarims. Once the
negarim system is constructed, it lasts for years with little
maintenance. A high runoff coefficient has to be maintained. Since it
supports high-value crops, applying runoff inducement treatments
may be economically viable.
 Potentially productive areas are wasted because of the large distances
between the trees. This problem can be overcome by planting trees in
clusters and using about 1000 m2 as the collecting area.
3.3.2.3 Meskat
 Meskat is a term used in Tunisia, where this system is widely used.
 a catchment area (the meskat) of about 500 m2 and a cropping area
(manka) of about 250 m2 , giving a CCR of 2:1.
 The catchment and cropping areas are surrounded by a 15–30-cm-
high bund equipped with spillways to let runoff flow into the cropping
plots.
 Meskats are suitable for areas with 200–400 mm annual rainfall and
land slopes of 2–15%. A meskat has one catchment area but may
have more than one cropped area, laid out in series so that surplus
runoff water spills over from one cropped area to another one (Figure
3.14). In North Africa they are used for growing olives, vines, figs,
carob, dates, and barley.
3.3.2.4 Contour bench terraces

 Contour bench terraces are constructed on land with steep slopes of 20–
50% (Figure 3.15). This technique combines soil and water conservation
with water harvesting.

 Cropped terraces are usually built to be level, and supported by stonewalls

to slow down runoff and control erosion. The cropped terraces are supplied
with runoff water from steep, non-cropped areas between the terraces.

 CCR ranges between from 1:1 to 10:1. The terraces are usually provided
with drains to safely release excess water.

 They are used for trees and bushes, but rarely for field crops.

 Terraces may be used in areas where the annual rainfall is between 200
and 600 mm. The construction can be done manually or using heavy
machines.

 Construction costs and labor requirements for maintenance are high.

On milder slopes of 10% or less with deeper soils, conservation bench
terraces might be the best technique among the contour terrace types
(Figure 3.16). Unlike contour bench terraces, there are no supporting
stone walls constructed due to lower land slope.
3.3.2.5 Small pits
 This form of pitting consists of digging pits that are 5–15 cm deep
and 0.3–2.0 m in diameter (Wright, 1985).
 The zay system is also used in combination with bunds to slow
runoff (Figure 3.17).
 Pitting systems are used mainly for the cultivation of annual crops,
especially cereals such as millet, maize, and sorghum.
 Pitting is applied in areas with an annual rainfall of 350–600 mm.
 It is commonly used on flat land or on slopes of up to 5%. The use of
pits on flat land is regarded more as an in situ moisture conservation
technique than a water harvesting system.
 Each pit has a catchment area of around 0.30 m2 and a cropped
area of about 0.1 m2 .
 The spacing between pits is 50 cm along the slope and 1 m across
the slope.
 Labor requirement for pitting is high as the pits have to be reformed
after each harvest.
3.3.2.6 Contour bunds and ridges
 spacing ranging from 5 to 20 m.
 One to two meters of the space between the bunds or ridges is
cultivated, while the rest is the catchment. The height of the ridges
varies according to the slope and the expected runoff depth behind
them.
 Ridges may be constructed on slopes from 1% to 50%. The key to the
success of these systems is to locate the ridge as precisely as
possible along the contour. If this is not done properly, water will flow
along the ridge, accumulating at the lowest point, eventually breaking
the bund and destroying the whole system.
 The minimum length of a cross-bund is 2 m if the contour bund
spacing is 5 m or more.
 If planting trees, an infiltration pit should be excavated at the junction
of the contour bund with the cross-bund.
 A special form of contour ridges may be constructed on mild slopes
with stone bunds every 20–30 m down the slope (Figure 3.21).
 These stone bunds are permeable and serve only to slow sheet flow
and allow for more infiltration.
3.3.2.7 Semicircular and trapezoidal bunds
 Semicircular and trapezoidal bunds are set with the tips of the arms of
the bunds set on the contour line, facing up the slope (Figure 3.22).
 The bunds are usually made of earth. These bunds are usually located
in staggered rows as shown in Figure 3.22.
 The distance between the ends of the bunds varies between 1 and 8
m; the bunds are 30 to 50 cm high. Crest or top width of bunds varies
from 10 to 25 cm.
 Excavating soil at immediately uphill side of the bund location creates
a slight depression, where runoff is intercepted and stored in the plant
root zone. The bunds can either be small and close to each other or
larger and more widely spaced (Figure 3.23).
 can be used on slopes up to 15%.
 This type of bund is mainly used for rangeland rehabilitation or fodder
production (Figure 3.24), but can also be used for growing trees,
shrubs, and in some cases field crops (e.g. sorghum) and vegetables
(e.g. watermelons).
3.3.2.8 Eyebrow terraces
 Eyebrow terraces are a form of semicircular bund that use stone to
support the downhill side (Figure 3.25).
 The steeper the slope, the more the bunds have to be strengthened by
stone material.
 The establishment and maintenance of this system are labor
intensive.
3.3.2.9 Rectangular bunds
 As the name suggests, rectangular bunds have bunds on three sides
of the cropping area, with a catchment area on the open slope above
the cultivated area (Figure 3.26).
 Shorter inner arms divide the cropping area into smaller basins to
effectively marshal minor supplies of runoff (Van Dijk & Ahmed, 1993).
Bunds are about 0.5 m tall with a base of about 2 m wide.
 Teras systems are mainly used for the cultivation of sorghum but
watermelons are sometimes planted on the bottom bunds where there
is a relatively good supply of runoff.
3.3.2.10 Vallerani-type micro-catchments
 are constructed using a special plow mounted on tractor.
 This is used to construct a series of furrows and bunds along the
contours of slopes (Figure 3.27). The bunds look like intermittent
contour ridges.
 each approximately 4–5 m long, 40 cm wide and 40 cm deep
 has a water-catchment capacity of about 600 liters.
 Establishing these micro-catchments costs about US$100/ha including
planting, which is relatively high. However, this might be economical if
large areas are to be covered (Antinori & Vallerani, 1994).
 This type of micro-catchment is used for the establishment of forests,
shelter belts, or agroforestry systems in arid and semi-arid areas.
 It can also be used for pasture improvement.
 contour ridges, and could potentially be used to rehabilitate degraded
rangelands.
 One major issue for large-scale implementation is the high cost and
time required to manually identify contours for the plow to follow.
 The system was field-tested on 95 ha of land where the system
capacity was determined under different terrains, slopes (1–8%), and
ridge spacing's (4–12 m).
 The easy adaptation and implementation of the CLG to the ‘Vallerani’
unit tripled the system capacity, improved efficiency and precision,
and substantially reduced the cost of constructing micro-catchments
for WH.
 The system is recommended for largescale rangeland rehabilitation
projects in the dry areas, not only in West Asia, but worldwide
(Gammoh & Oweis, 2011).
3.4 MACRO-CATCHMENT WATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES
3.4.1 Introduction
 characterized by collecting runoff water from a large natural catchment
such as the slope of a mountain or hill.
 Catchments for these systems are often located outside the farm
boundaries, where farmers have no control over them.
 The predominant flow is turbulent runoff and channel flow
 subdivided into two categories according to the nature of the
catchment and the way runoff water is flowing and/or is transported to
the target:
1. long-slope systems
2. floodwater systems.
 In the long slope systems, the catchment area is somewhat defined and
not far from the target area, hence travel time of runoff water is usually
short (Mzirai & Tumbo, 2010).
 In floodwater harvesting runoff water is usually generated from a
remote, vast and ill-defined catchment and transported via a long and
well-defined channel (wadi).
Floodwater systems may be further subdivided into two classes
according to the location of the target:
:- wadi-bed if the target is inside the wadi’s cross section; and
:- off-wadi-bed if the target is located outside the cross section of the
wadi channel.

 Generally, the proportion of runoff captured per unit area of

catchment is much lower in macro-catchments than in micro-
catchments and ranges from 10 to 50% of annual rainfall.
 Water is often stored in surface or subsurface reservoirs, but may also
be stored in the soil profile for direct use by crops.
 In some cases, water is stored in aquifers as a recharge system.
 The cropping area is either terraced on gentle slopes or located on
flat terrain (Figure 3.29).
 In many locations, a mixture of several macro-catchment types or a
combination of macro- and micro-catchment techniques can be found
(Figure 3.30).
3.4.2 Long-slope water harvesting
3.4.2.1 Hillside conduit systems
In hillside conduit systems rainwater running down hill is directed by
small conduit channels to fields at the foot of the hills or mountains
(Evenari et al., 1982; Klemm, 1990) (Figure 3.31).
 In these systems, fields are leveled and surrounded by levees with a
spillway to drain excess water to fields downstream. When all fields in
the series are filled by water, water is allowed to join the wadi.
 Distribution basins can be constructed to allow the use of several
feeder canals (see Figure 3.33 and Box 3.2).
 This is an ideal system to utilize the runoff from bare or sparsely
vegetated hilly or mountainous areas (Mzirai & Tumbo, 2010).
 Hillside conduit schemes require proper design, high labor input, and
probably the assistance of an engineer. The slopes of the conduits
should be sufficient to prevent sediment settling; alternatively
sediment must be cleared after heavy rainstorms.
 Fields need to be leveled and spillways constructed at the correct
height to ensure uniform distribution over the fields and equity
among beneficiaries.
 Large amounts of rainfall are harvested regularly, bunds and
spillways may be used to control the amount of water delivered to
various cropped areas located down the slope.
 Sorghum, for example, which is tolerant of waterlogging and is thus
well suited to this system, whereas maize, which has got a low
tolerance towards waterlogging, is not.
 A system of bunds and spillways can, however, be used to control the
amount of water delivered to various cropped areas, which would
allow sorghum to be planted on the upper plots and drought-resistant
millets to be planted on the lowest plots
3.4.2.2 Limans
 Limans are single structures at the foot of long slopes, consisting of a
bund of 1–3-m high around a cropping area (Figure 3.34).
 They are not located in valleys as jessour systems are, and they are
not arranged in rows as is the case with large semicircular bund
systems.
 The term ‘liman’ was selected for this system because after a runoff
producing storm, the cultivated area looks like a lake or a pool or
liman (Figure 3.35).
 This technique is mainly used in regions of very low precipitation and
with very few rainfall events per year. The size of the cropping area
varies from 0.1 to 0.5 ha, while the catchment area may be up to 200
ha
 Limans can be planted with trees that are tolerant of waterlogging yet
able to withstand months of drought. Examples include Eucalyptus
occidentalis and Acacia salicina.
 The eucalyptus can be planted at a density of up to 700 per hectare
(Bruins et al., 1986).
3.4.2.3 Large semicircular or trapezoidal bunds
 These structures consist of large semicircular, trapezoidal or V-shaped
earthen bunds facing up the slope (Figure 3.36).
 Crops are planted when the water trapped in the enclosed area subsides.
 The system is best suited to slopes of 1–3%. The distance between the
tips of each bund may range between 10 and 100 m or more; the bunds
are 1−2 m tall.
 Often, they are aligned in long staggered rows. However, the construction
of more than two rows of these bunds in one site may not be appropriate
in many cases, since lower rows receive insufficient runoff to support a
crop.
 Water overflow discharges around the tips of the bunds, which must
therefore be protected against erosion.
 These large bunds are normally constructed using machinery, rarely
manually.
 They enclose areas of 0.1–1 ha, depending on the slope.
 As these large bunds can store large quantities of water they may break
under extreme rainstorm events, particularly just after they have been
constructed. To avoid this problem a controlled overflow mechanism may
be incorporated in the bund. As the systems are not traditional, adoption
can be difficult.
3.4.2.4 Cultivated tanks/reservoirs and hafairs
 Tanks are usually earthen reservoirs dug in the ground in gently
sloping areas that receive runoff water either by diversion from wadis
or from a large catchment area.
 They are known as ‘Roman ponds’ in parts of North Africa, where
they are usually built with stone walls. The capacity of these tanks
ranges from a few thousand cubic meters, in which case they are
called hafair, to tens of thousands of cubic meters.
 Several problems are associated with tanks and reservoirs. The water
may become stagnant and polluted, provides a breeding ground for
insects, especially mosquitoes, and can become a source of disease.
As these reservoirs usually have no protection around them, there is
a risk of people or animals falling into them and drowning.
 Large amount of water is lost through seepage and evaporation.
Several improvements, including fencing, lining to reduce seepage
losses, and settling basins to capture sediment load, have been
introduced to overcome these limitations.
3.4.3 Floodwater harvesting systems
The main characteristics of floodwater harvesting systems, also called
‘spate irrigation’, are:
− Large, distant catchments (some several kilometers from the target
cropping area)
− Turbulent flow of water in channels
− Water is either stored and then diverted or spread within the stream
bed
− Solid hydraulic structures
− Provision for the removal of excess water.
 Among the most important problems associated with these systems
are water rights and the allocation of water between the catchment
and the cultivated areas and among users upstream and downstream
of the watershed.
 These are best addressed by planning the water harvesting
interventions within an integrated watershed development approach.
An excellent overview over all aspects of floodwater harvesting is given
in the ‘FAO guidelines on spate irrigation’ (FAO, 2010). Van
Steenbergen et al. (2011) may serve as a good example how to assess
3.4.3.1 Wadi-bed water harvesting systems
 In wadi-bed water harvesting systems the bed of the wadi is used to
store the water either on the surface by blocking the water flow or in
the soil profile by slowing the flow and allowing it to infiltrate in the
soil.
 They involve complex systems of dams and distribution networks.
Farmers who have a wadi passing through their land can build a
small dam in a suitable location to store some or all of the runoff
water in the wadi (Figure 3.39).
 This technique is very common in wadi beds with mild slopes.
 Due to slow water velocity, eroded sediments usually settle in the
wadi bed and create good agricultural land.
 These walls should be made of stone or gabions, and should not be
more than one meter tall (Figure 3.40).
 The top of the wall should be horizontal in order to create level land
behind it and allow excess water to overflow along the entire top
length.
 The distance between walls along the wadi bed depends on the slope
of the wadi bed and the height of the wall.
 Crops commonly grown in wadi beds include fruit trees such as fig,
olive, date palm, and other high value crops since the soil in the wadi
bed is usually fertile and water is reasonably guaranteed.
 The main problem with this type of water harvesting is the cost
involved in building and maintaining the crossing walls.
 Another problem that appeared recently in some parts of WANA is
that increasing human activity in catchment areas is resulting in less
runoff water reaching the wadis depriving downstream cultivation
areas of water.
 A variant of wadi-bed water harvesting is practiced in steeper wadis in
southern Tunisia, where the system is known as jessour.
 In this system the walls (tabia) are usually built to a height of 1–2 m
initially and are raised as sediment accumulates behind them (Figure
3.41).
 They are made of earth, stones or both, but always have a spillway,
usually made of stone. The top of the tabia is normally 30 to 40 cm
above the soil surface level immediately upstream the tabia.
 Usually, there are series of jessour along the wadi. These systems
require maintenance to stay in good shape.
 The dimensions and design of these structures greatly vary depending
on the site geometry and water flow rates. They are usually keyed in
the wadi-bed by digging a foundation trench to prevent them from
being undermined by runoff. Labor and stone requirements are high. It
may be necessary to transport stones to the site if not enough stone is
available locally.
 In this system the valley bottom is dissected by dams between 100 m
and several kilometers apart. Sediment eroded from the adjacent
cultivated areas on the loess plateau is spilled into the segments, filling
them up over the course of time. The newly reclaimed areas are highly
fertile and are intensively cropped.
3.4.3.2 Off-wadi systems
 In off-wadi systems structures force the wadi water to leave its natural
course and direct it to nearby areas suitable for agriculture (Figure
3.43).
 This technique is also called ‘floodwater diversion’.
 Similar structures may also be used to collect rainwater from
catchments outside the wadi bed, such in the cases of tanks and
hafairs.
 In this system water is stored only in the root zone of the crops, i.e. it
supplements rainfall.
 Water diversion requires relatively uniform land with a low slope.
 The key to the success of this system is the construction of the
diversion structure and the canals conveying the water, which may
require the expertise of an engineer.
 The diversion structure must be strong enough to resist the flow of the
wadi and at an elevation appropriate to divert the required portion of
the flow.
 Various materials have been used to build diversion structures,
including stone and concrete, but the most durable material is
gabions.
3.5 CONTAMINATION CONCERNS
The major problem in harvesting surface runoff for domestic and animal
consumption is the possible contamination of the harvested water. Since
the surfaces from which the water is harvested are exposed throughout
the year, they can be contaminated by animal and human dung, dust,
insects, and birds.
Chemicals used to treat catchment surfaces are sometimes washed down
the storage area by the runoff.
Chapter 4
Runoff inducement methods
4.1 INTRODUCTION

 The term ‘water harvesting’ is used to describe the process by which

water is collected from an area that may have been modified or treated
to increase precipitation runoff and is stored for later use.

 This chapter describes some of the methods and materials used to

induce runoff in agricultural systems. Some general ideas and concepts
are presented on runoff inducement techniques (such as surface
modification, cover sheets, and soil surface treatment) that are feasible
for use in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. The advantages and
disadvantages, cost, and conditions favoring each method are
discussed.
4.2 METHODS OF IMPROVING RUNOFF
Often the catchment area needs to be modified to increase runoff (see, for
example, Box 4.1). This can be done by:
– modifying the topography or soil surface;
– modifying the soil; and
– covering the surface with an impermeable layer.
 There is no one technique or method that is best in all situations. The
best techniques to use vary depending on topography, soil condition,
storage devices, labor, availability of treating/covering materials, and
intended use of the water harvested. The cost of alternative water
sources and the importance of water supply determine the costs which
can be justified.
 The total cost for preparing a catchment area is composed of two main
items: the cost of materials and cost of labor. Some materials and
installation techniques are labor-intensive but have relatively low
capital costs. This type of techniques may be suitable for areas where
labor is cheap.
• Other approaches may have high capital costs but require a minimum
of labor, e.g. mechanized compaction (Figure 4.1). Such techniques
may be appropriate in areas with high labor costs. Usually, the water
harvesting systems used in runoff farming are constructed from
materials that are cheap, locally available, and easily handled.
4.2.1 Creating shallow channels

 In long-slope water harvesting systems the runoff water yield can be

increased substantially by creating shallow channels within the catchment
area.

 Depending on local conditions, the work involved can be done manually or by

heavy machinery. Special care is needed to avoid soil erosion within those
channels. The construction of small bunds perpendicular to the direction of
flow slows down the running water, promotes sedimentation and reduces the
erosion risk.
4.2.2 Clearing the catchment

 Clearing rocks and vegetation usually increases runoff (Figure 4.2).

 Clearing the catchment in this way can be a very economical way to harvest
rainwater in arid lands if erosion is limited and low-cost hillside land is
available.

 However, if erosion is severe, soil conservation measures have to be selected

that do not significantly reduce runoff water yield.
4.2.3 Smoothing the soil surface
 The soil surface may be smoothed by removing small obstructions such
as ridges and furrows across the contour of the land.
 In this method, small amounts of topographic modification are required.
This may require considerable amounts of labor or the use of
machinery, depending on the topography and soil conditions.
 Smoothing the soil surface as sole method applied, may have low runoff
efficiencies. Runoff efficiency can be improved by constructing a system
of ditches and ridges, arranged in a fish-bone style, on suitable slopes.
4.2.4 Compacting the soil surface
Compacting the soil surface can increase the runoff. The slopes are graded
and compacted manually or mechanically. For manual compaction, a hand
hammer may be used; mechanical compaction requires a tractor and
rubber-tired roller or other compacting machinery, depending on field
conditions and the area to be compacted (Figure 4.3).
The major advantage of this method is that the system uses the existing
soil and can be built with readily available equipment. However, the high
capital cost of the technique makes it unsuitable for many developing
countries.

4.2.5 Surface sealing

 Surface sealing involves chemical treatments either sprayed onto the
catchment area or mixed into the soil surface to reduce or stop water
infiltration (Figure 4.5).
 Light soils with high infiltration rate do not produce much runoff. This is
a major problem in many sandy areas of WANA where water harvesting
is very much needed.
Sodium salts cause clay in the soil to disperse, swell, or break down into
small particles, increasing runoff. They show promise as a soil sealant
because of their low cost, ready availability, and retardation of weed
growth.
 However, soil erosion might be a potential problem with this treatment.
 Negative effects on plant growth by this kind of treatment have not
been observed.
 The treatment consists of mixing a water-soluble sodium-based salt
(e.g. NaCl) into the top 2 cm of soil at a rate of about 1 t/ha.
A second type of soil surface modification treatment is the application of
water-repellent chemicals. These materials when applied to the
catchment area create a hydrophobic or water-repellent soil surface.
 This treatment does not change the porosity of the soil, but instead
changes the surface-tension characteristics between the water and
soil particles. One of the simplest water-repellent chemicals is sodium
silanolate. This is applied in a water solution and forms a water-
repellent layer 1–2 cm deep with an effective life of 3–5 years.
Another water-repellent treatment consists of spraying molten, refined, low-
melting point paraffin wax onto the prepared soil surface. The wax is
initially deposited as a thin layer on the surface. As the sun heats the
surface, the wax partially melts and moves deeper into the soil, coating
each individual soil particle with a thin wax layer and rendering the soil
water repellent.
 This treatment is best suited to soil containing less than 20% clay and on
catchment sites where the soil temperature will exceed the melting point
of the wax during part of the year (Frasier, 1980).
 Wax-treated plots yield an average of 90% of the rainfall as runoff,
compared with 30–40% from untreated plots.
 However, the paraffin wax does not provide significant soil stabilization
and the treatment is susceptible to water and wind erosion. To overcome
the difficulties of using paraffin wax in inducing runoff, the wax may be
emulsified by using low-cost additives. The emulsified wax can be
applied easily to catchment plots using a small sprayer (Figure 4.6).
 The use of the wax may triple the amount of runoff from small plots.
4.2.6 Impermeable coverings
 Instead of making the soil itself the water-shedding surface, it may be
better in some situations to cover it with a waterproof layer.
 Most types of plastic and other thin sheeting materials have been
investigated as potential soil coverings for water harvesting
catchments, including thin plastic films, butyl rubber, asphalt
membranes, and highway surfaces. Bitumen or asphalt are best
suited to fine sandy soils, but have an effective life of only 2–5 years
(Laing, 1981).
 Unfortunately, thin film coverings are susceptible to damage by wind
and/or sunlight.
 The partial covering of the ground with plastic sheets, e.g., around
trees, contributes to evaporation reduction and increase in rainwater
collection (Figure 4.7)
 The sheets of plastic/the tar paper provides the waterproof membrane
and the gravel protects it from wind and sun.
 A good catchment surface can also be made by covering asphalt with a
better-quality film with a gravel layer on top
 These catchments, if properly constructed and maintained, can last for
20 years.
 An effective treatment used for supplying water for wildlife and
irrigation is the asphalt–fabric membrane.
 In this system random-weave fiberglass matting or a synthetic
polyester engineering filter fabric is unrolled on the prepared
catchment surface and saturated with an asphalt emulsion. Three to 10
days later, a final asphaltic emulsion seal coat is brushed on the
membrane. These membranes are relatively resistant to damage by
wind, animals, and weathering.
 Many conventional construction materials such as concrete, sheet
metal, or artificial rubber sheeting can be used on water harvesting
catchments (Box 4.2). These materials are relatively expensive, but
when properly installed and maintained have an effective life up to 20
years. They are useful where gravel is readily available and maximum
runoff is not required.
 Another study in China evaluated runoff characteristics of six surface
treatments relative to rainfall amount and intensity and antecedent
rainfall during naturally occurring rainfall events in the semi-arid
loess regions of northwest China.
 The surface treatments included two basic types, i.e. earthen
(natural loess slope and cleared loess slope) and barrier-type
(concrete, asphalt–fiberglass, plastic film, and gravel covered plastic
film). The results indicated that runoff and runoff efficiency of the
earthen surface treatments were closely related to rain intensity,
while runoff from the asphalt–fiberglass, plastic film, gravel-covered
plastic film, and concrete surface treatments was more governed by
the amount of rainfall.
 Asphalt–fiberglass had the highest average annual runoff efficiency of
74–81%, followed in decreasing order by the plastic film (57–76%),
gravel-covered plastic film (56–77%), concrete (46–69%), cleared loess
slope (12–13%), and natural loess slope (9–11%) (Figure 4.8).
 Antecedent rainfall had an obvious effect on runoff yield for the cleared
loess slope, natural loess slope, and concrete.
 The threshold rainfall was 8.5, 8.0, and 1.5 mm for the natural loess
slope, cleared loess slope, and concrete treatment, respectively,
without antecedent rainfall effects, and 6.0, 5.0, and 1.2 mm,
respectively, with antecedent rainfall effects.
 Due to the impermeable surface, antecedent rainfall had little effect on
the runoff yield for the asphalt–fiberglass, plastic film, and gravel-
covered plastic film treatments, which had threshold rainfall of 0.1, 0.2,
and 0.9 mm, respectively (Xiao-Yan et al., 2004).
4.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RUNOFF-INDUCEMENT
METHODS

Many runoff inducement methods are site and area specific. The best method to use
for a specific area depends upon the catchment characteristics, topography, rock
type, and soil conditions. The socioeconomic conditions of the farmers are also an
important consideration, as is government policy.
Myers & Frasier (1975) list some of the desirable characteristics of catchment-area
treatments to be used for runoff inducement:
– The resulting surface of the treated area should be relatively smooth and
impermeable to water.
– The treated catchment area should have a high resistance to weathering damage
(hot and cold) and resistance to deterioration from internal chemical and physical
properties.
– The treatment should be able to resist damage by hail, intense rainfall, wind,
occasional animal traffic, moderate flow of water, plant growth, insects, birds and
burrowing animals.
– The treatment should be inexpensive on an annual cost basis, and should permit
minimum site preparation and construction costs.
– Operation and maintenance should be simple and inexpensive, and the lifespan of
the treatment should be as long as possible.
– Runoff water collected from the treated area must be nontoxic to plants and should
not be harmful to human health.
 Not all of these characteristics may be obtained with any one
treatment. Table 4.1 lists design estimates of runoff efficiency,
average expected life, and initial cost for material per unit area for
some common catchment treatments for runoff inducement.
 Some of the more-expensive methods have higher runoff efficiency
(more than 90%) and longer life (15–20 years) than the less-expensive
methods. More labor-intensive and cheaper methods usually have low
runoff efficiency (10–20%).
 Figures 4.9 and 4.10 show the general trend of investment
requirements and suitability of various runoff inducement techniques
in relation to the type of water harvesting system. Selecting the most
appropriate method still depends on an expert assessment of
technical, cultural, socioeconomic, and political considerations.
4.4 FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS
 Care is needed to minimize the side effects of runoff-inducement
methods. Poorly designed and managed rainwater harvesting can
lead to soil erosion, soil instability, and local flooding. However,
data on rainfall intensity, variability and hydro-geology are lacking in
many developing countries, which hampers selection of the
appropriate method.
 Soil erosion is a constant concern and can be controlled if the slope is
short and not too steep.
 Slope of the drainage area affects the quantity and quality of runoff.
In long-slope systems the most efficient water harvest is from a small,
gently-sloping catchment with good soil conditions (or from steep
catchments with rocky surface).
 A rainwater harvesting catchment must withstand weathering and
occasional traffic. However, most soil treatments have a limited lifespan
and must be maintained and renewed periodically.
 They also require occasional maintenance because of cracking caused
by unstable soil, oxidation, and weathering; plants growing up through
the ground cover or the treated soil; and penetration by grazing
animals.
 Water harvesting for agriculture in the dry areas Runoff water may be
contaminated by the materials used to enhance runoff. If new materials
are to be deployed, it should be done on small scale first, before this
material is applied at large scale.
 Drylands often have rich ecosystems, consisting of many species of
flora, fauna, and microorganism. The preservation of this diversity must
be taken into consideration when clearing sites for water harvesting.
 Chapter 5
Identification of areas suitable for water harvesting
5.1 INTRODUCTION
 Selection of appropriate sites and suitable methods under the
prevailing conditions are among the most important prerequisites for
successful water harvesting systems, particularly for the macro-
catchment type which is characterized by large areas (Van
Steenbergen et al., 2011).
 Development of a methodology for identifying potential sites for RWH
is an important step towards identifying areas suitable for certain
techniques of water harvesting.
5.2 PARAMETERS FOR IDENTIFYING SUITABLE AREAS
Although water harvesting seems to be very simple, it cannot be
implemented in all dryland areas. Parameters to be considered in
identifying areas suitable for water harvesting include:
− the prevailing climatic characteristics of the region, especially
the rainfall;
− hydrology and alternative water resources;
− the topography of the region;
− the type of vegetation and agricultural production/ forestry
activities;
− the soil type(s) of the region, including soil depth and soil
fertility;
− socioeconomic conditions of the community;
− national laws (e.g. on water rights) and regulations, and
− infrastructural facilities available or planned for the area. (See
Figure 5.1).
5.2.1 Rainfall characteristics
 The availability of rainfall data collected over many years is crucial for
the determination of the rainfall–runoff potential of a given region.
 Average rainfall can be used in areas with insufficient rainfall data.
 Rainfall can be measured on site using non-recording rainfall gauges
to record single rainfall events or the daily total rainfall in the project
area.
 However, such data should be used with caution especially when
extrapolating findings to adjacent areas: studies in a semi-arid region
showed that 96% of the rainfall events at a station are representative
of the rainfall of an area of only about 2.5 km2 surrounding a rain
gauge (Murphy et al., 1977).
 Even the height of the rain gauge from the ground affects the amount
of rainfall measured. To avoid discrepancies, rain gauges should be
placed at the same height throughout the project area (Doorenbos,
1976).
 Threshold rain, i.e. the depth of rain that must fall before runoff
starts, is used in some rainfall–runoff models as a start value for
runoff. Sufficient allowance must be made for the heterogeneity of
the rainfall in time and space.
 Similar values might be found in other areas with similar climate and
soils.
 Rainfall intensity should also be determined as it is required for
rainfall–runoff models. Recording rain gauges can be used for its
determination.
 Rainfall duration can also be determined reliably using a recording
rain gauge. This is also an important factor because it is often related
to peak discharge in simulation models.
 Once these data have been acquired, the most important rainfall
parameters to be determined are:
− the relationship between the storm intensity and its duration; and
− the number of storms per year, including their mean standard
deviation and probability distribution. These parameters will then be
used to calculate the volume of water available for cropping, possibly by
generating synthetic rain events for deterministic calculations of runoff
quantities.
 The temperature regime, air humidity and wind conditions during the
cropping period are further climatic factors which have to be taken
into consideration when selecting a certain area for water harvesting.
5.2.2 Hydrology and water resources
 The hydrological processes relevant to water harvesting practices are
those involved in the production, flow, and storage of runoff from
rainfall within a particular catchment area.
 Rain falling on a particular catchment area can be divided into two
major components: the effective rainfall for water harvesting (direct
runoff) and losses.
The sources of loss are:
− evaporation from the ground;
− water infiltration in the catchment;
− depression storage in the catchment; and
− water intercepted by leaves of plants.
 In arid and semi-arid areas, extreme fluctuations in both annual rainfall
and its distribution within the rainy season are a major constraint to
agricultural production. In most cases, rainfall shows no regular patterns;
wet periods are often followed by marked dry periods.

 Modeling the rainfall–runoff process in the hydrological analysis of an

area is very complicated and the model designer must choose the most
appropriate model from the existing model types or develop one to suit
the area in question.

The availability of sufficient runoff that can be stored in the target area to
meet the water requirement of the selected crops during the dry periods
between rain events is a good indication of the suitability of the area for
water harvesting.

Another factor to be taken into consideration is the availability of other

water sources, e.g. of near-surface groundwater in wadi beds, ground water
from deeper aquifers. These water sources can either substitute runoff
water during drought seasons or extend the cropping period beyond the
rainy season.
5.2.3 Vegetation and land use
An increase in the vegetative density results in a corresponding increase
in losses to interception, retention, and infiltration, which consequently
decreases the volume of runoff.
The density of vegetation on a given area can be determined in a variety
of ways, but remote sensing is useful if the project area is large and funds
are available.

 Land use affects in various ways the suitability of land for water
harvesting.
Introducing micro-catchment harvesting in areas already under cropping
is much easier than transferring farmers into potentially suitable areas.
On the other hand, farming activities in catchment areas reduce
significantly the runoff yield, as plowed fields show high infiltration rates.
Grazing reduces the vegetation cover; this will result in higher runoff
volumes of catchment areas. Overgrazing, however, entails in most cases
a raised soil erosion risk, with negative impacts on the water harvesting
potential of the region.
5.2.4 Topography, soil type and soil depth
The suitability of an area for water harvesting depends strongly on its
topography and soil characteristics, namely:
− the slope of a terrain, which is a decisive factor for any type of water
harvesting;
− surface structure, which influences the rainfall–runoff process;
− infiltration and percolation rates, which determine the movement of
water into the soil and within the soil matrix; and
− soil depth, which, together with the soil texture, determines the
quantity of water that can be stored in the soil.
 Micro catchment systems are more appropriate for gentle slopes,
whereas macro-catchment techniques can only be established in
terrain having significant slopes (Tauer & Humborg, 1992).
 The infiltration rate is the amount of water entering the soil, through
its surface, over a given time. Infiltrometers and/or rainfall simulators
can be used to determine the infiltration behavior of any soil. The
main soil parameters affecting infiltration rate are texture, structure,
and depth (Figure 5.3;).

 A well-developed root system increases infiltration rate. If the soil is

bare of vegetation, raindrops hit the soil surface directly, sealing the
surface, which hinders infiltration.
 Initial infiltration rates are higher on dry soils than on wet soils. As
rain falls the infiltration rate declines rapidly because pores near the
surface fill quickly and the hydraulic gradient, which is the driving
force for the infiltration process, drops rapidly.
 In addition, soil surface sealing may occur, reducing infiltration. The
cracks that frequently occur in clay-rich soils close as the soil
becomes wet.
 The Soil Texture Classification Triangle (Figure 5.4) shows the soil
types that are suitable for catchments and for cropping (Prinz et al.,
1999)
5.2.5 Socioeconomics and infrastructure
 Many projects have been abandoned soon after implementation as a
result of neglect of this very important aspect during the planning
stage.
 Key considerations include the farming systems of the community
• the financial resources of the average farmer in the area,
• cultural behaviors and religious beliefs of the people,
• the attitude of the farmers towards the introduction of new farming
methods,
• the farmers’ knowledge about irrigated agriculture,
• land property rights, and
• the role of men and women in the community.
• The mobility of the populace may also influence planning decisions.
For example, in West Africa it was assumed that settled farmers
would walk a maximum of 6 km from their homes to a water
harvesting system, whereas seminomadic people would simply move
to wherever they can find food and water for their animals
irrespective of the distance.
 As in any development projects, existing infrastructures or future
plans that will be developed in the future on the same area have to
be taken into account when planning a water harvesting scheme.
5.3 METHODS OF DATA ACQUISITION
5.3.1 Overview
 The choice of method used to acquire this data depends not only on
technical and financial considerations, but may also be constrained by
national security and political issues.
5.3.2 Ground truthing
Field visits to the area where a water harvesting project is to be executed
are always necessary. For reliable results, specialists versed in hydrology,
prevailing vegetative condition of the region, and possibly the agricultural
practices of the local population will be needed.
Some parameters cannot be directly ascertained from maps, aerial
photographs, or even satellite images, but require an inventory of the
terrain during field visits. Maps and ground truthing are adequate sources
of information if the project will be executed in a small area but will be too
time-consuming and expensive for larger areas or at regional levels.
5.3.3 Aerial photography
 Aerial surveying is a proven instrument for extensive data acquisition.
 Vertical surveys with stereoscopic overlap can be made using large
cameras.
 Aerial surveying depends on the regional or national availability of
survey planes, and is cost-effective only for large-scale projects.
 It may be appropriate for a water harvesting project on a regional
scale.
5.3.4 Satellite and remote-sensing technology
 The term ‘remote sensing’ is used to describe all the procedures
employed in recording information from high above the Earth’s
surface.
 Done from an airplane or satellite.
 Cannot only be used for preliminary gathering of information, but also
to continuously monitor and update data at regular intervals.
 Water, forest, pasture, and other features reflect light from the sun
differently and yield characteristic patterns in the relation between
wavelengths and amount of reflected energy. These patterns can be
recognized in the data registered by the satellite.
 Image classification is based on the assumption that areas with
similar characteristic spectra have similar characteristics on the
ground.
 In remote sensing cartography, the acquired information is first
classified in problem oriented categories, and is then mapped in
accordance with standard cartographical rules.
 Compared to approaches using aerial photography and ground truth,
a less effort is required to process remotely sensed data because
certain stages of the analysis can be assessed on the monitor to
elaborate certain statistical evaluations.
Use of Google Earth imagery
 Google Earth images are now available worldwide and offer good
opportunities for water harvesting planning. Box 5.1 presents an
example of the application of Google Earth images.
 The images are available free of charge, but a commercial version
that offers more features is also available.
 The drawbacks to Google Earth images are that they are normally
several years old and changes are not recorded.
 Nevertheless, Google Earth images can serve as basis for land-use
planning.
5.4 TOOLS
5.4.1 Maps
Maps may still be the only means of acquiring data in some countries, aside
from Google Earth images. Two types of maps have commonly been used in
gathering land related information: topographic and thematic.
5.4.1.1 Topographic maps
 A topographic map represents the features of an area in an analogue form.
 This type of map can be found in many regions of the world. They can be
digitized and incorporated into a GIS database.
5.4.1.2 Thematic maps
 Thematic maps present specific types of information, e.g. soils, rainfall or
temperature isohyets, vegetation types, etc.
 Thematic maps present source information in classes.
 It should be noted that a degree of inaccuracy exists in the way classes
are defined.
 For instance, a continuous phenomenon such as soil or vegetation type is
mapped as homogeneous map units with sharp boundaries, whereas the
actual circumstances on the ground vary within each map unit; this may
affect project results significantly.
5.4.2 Aerial photographs
 There are archives of black and white aerial photographs in many
parts of the world, but their usefulness depends on the age and scale
of the images and the specific purpose for which they were taken.
 Color-infrared photographs can be used to differentiate vegetation
types (Mati et al., 2006).
5.4.3 Geographic information systems
 A GIS is a computer-based system used to capture, store, edit,
manage, and display geographically referenced information,
including spatial and descriptive data.
 Spatial data deal with the location and shape of various features and
the relationship among them. Such features as topography, water
resources, soil types, land-use types, infrastructure, and
administrative boundaries can be combined in a GIS.
 Descriptive data describe the characteristics of these features. Thus,
a GIS serves as a tool for representing the real world.
 GIS can be used to help policy makers to identify and prioritize
appropriate rainwater harvesting interventions.
Creation of GIS for area identification
 The type of information needed may differ depending on the type of
water harvesting to be implemented.
However, four types of basic data will be required for a GIS database:
− Existing maps of the area
− Remote-sensing data
− Existing databases, e.g. climatic data
− Data from field visits and measurements.
All the above data types have to be identified, selected, and classified.
They are then stored in a computer to form a GIS database containing
geometrical and attribute information (Figure 5.5).
Creating a GIS database is both costly and time-consuming, but once
the data base is created it can be analyzed using a variety of GIS
manipulation tools. Some of the commonly employed manipulation
tools are:
− Network analysis
− Digital terrain analysis
− Cartographic analysis, overlay, and intersection
− Model applications connected to the GIS database
− Statistical analysis and classification
− Digital image processing.
 The results of the analysis are finally presented in the form of graphs,
maps, plots, statistics, and scripts.
 The decisive factor in terms of determining the most-suitable water
harvesting technique for a particular site is the slope of the terrain.
 An inclination model may be created from a digital terrain model
(DTM), but creating a DTM requires considerable effort and is time-
consuming and costly if the area of interest is large.
The most important methods used in obtaining a DTM are (in ascending
order of cost):
− digitization of topographic maps;
− photometric assessment of satellite images;
− photometric assessment of aerial photographs; and
− in situ topographic survey.
 The most accurate, and expensive, method is a topographic survey
using geodetic instruments. However, digitization of topographic
maps is recommended for many developing nations to reduce
costs.
 The terrain data from available maps may not be good enough for
a hydrologic model, but can be used with acceptable accuracy in
predicting the type of water harvesting to be established in a given
area.
5.5 DECISION TREES
 Decision Trees are excellent tools for helping to choose between
several courses of action.
 They provide a highly effective structure within which one can lay out
options and investigate the possible outcomes when choosing those
options.
 They also help to form a balanced picture of the risks and rewards
associated with each possible course of action.
 A value or score is assigned to each possible outcome.
 Decision tree analysis requires an estimate of the probability or
possibility of each outcome.
 If we use percentages, the total must come to 100%. If we use
fractions, these must add up to 1. If we have data on past events one
may be able to make rigorous estimates of the probabilities,
otherwise best guess is made.
 After working out the value of the outcomes, and have assessed the
probability of uncertainty, it is time to start calculating the values that
will help us make our decision.
 Decision trees or diagrams can help in determining the most
appropriate site to choose for a particular water harvesting system.
 Satellite images of the water storage capacity of the soil together with
the inclinations and digitized topographical maps indicating distances
between populated centers and potential water harvesting sites were
superimposed on three levels through a GIS raster.
 If all types of water harvesting system are grouped into macro- and
micro-catchment water harvesting systems, one can be able to find the
most appropriate technique in a given area (Figure 5.6).
Chapter 6 Planning and design of water harvesting systems

6.1 INTRODUCTION
 In dry areas, water shortage is the principal limiting factor on crop
production.
 Understanding of soil–water–plant relations is necessary for design and
management of water harvesting interventions.
 About 95% of water taken in by plants is transpired, while 5% or less used in
plant growth. If water cannot be absorbed by the roots to compensate for
transpiration loss, then a water deficit develops in the plants, and plants
may wilt.
6.2 SOIL–WATER–PLANT–CLIMATE RELATIONS
6.2.1 Soil
 Soil is a three-dimensional body, occupying the upper most part of Earth’s
crust. Its properties differ from those of the underlying rock as a result of
interactions between climate, living organisms, parent material, and relief
over period of time.
 The most important soil properties and conditions relevant to water
harvesting and irrigation are texture, structure, depth, and infiltration.
 In regard to runoff generation the effect of soil crusting cannot be
underestimated (Carmi & Berliner, 2008).
 The use of the ‘consumptive crop water use’ concept is more valid
here than the ‘crop water requirements’, concept, because the former
takes into account all factors and conditions, such as water stress,
poor soil and fertility management, or in appropriate farming
conditions, that influence the water use of a crop under given farming
conditions.
 Availability of data is often limited in dry areas due to the low density
of meteorological stations.
6.2.2.3 Field water budget
 The concept of field water budget or balance is extremely important in
evaluating the inter seasonal behavior of the soil–water–climate–
crop system..
 In this approach the soil profile is subdivided into a number of layers.
These layers may possess different physical properties and levels
of soil moisture.
 The depth of water in each layer is determined by multiplying its
volumetric water content by the layer thickness.
 The total water available in the root zone, the so called soil reservoir,
is calculated by summing the depth of water in all the layers.
 The water available in the root zone is used as an indication to the
status of the system or as a guide for timing and amount of irrigation
application.
• The term Wh in equation (6.2) depends, among many other factors, on
the size (area) of the catchment relative to the cropped area (the
target).

• There will be periods when the amount of precipitation is significantly

less than the mean value used in the system design. While it is
technically feasible to enlarge the catchment and storage in anticipation
of below-average precipitation, it is not usually feasible to design a
water harvesting system to meet the least amount of precipitation that
can be expected.

• The field water budget concept can be used to decide on the degree of
risk that can be accepted regarding insufficient precipitation during
some periods.
 The water content of a soil is determined either in the laboratory or in
the field. It is usually expressed as a percentage mass (or weight) of
the oven-dry soil as follows:

• In agricultural practice, it is often necessary and more useful to

express the water content as a percentage by volume of the
undisturbed soil. This can be done by multiplying the water content on
dry mass basis by the apparent specific gravity of the soil as follows:
 In irrigation, it is customary to express volume percentages (Pv ) in
depth of water per given depth of soil.
 Thus, a Pv of 1% (one unit volume of water per hundred volume units
of soil) means one depth unit of water per hundred depth units of soil.
e.g. 1 mm of water per 100 mm of soil depth. This is also equivalent to
0.1 mm of water per 1 cm of soil depth.

 The capillary water of soil between FC (Field capacity), as an upper

limit, and WP (wilting point), as a lower limit, is known as available
water, (AW).

 Thus, AW is the difference between FC and WP. For example, if FC (by

volume) = 30%, and WP (by volume) = 16%, then AW = 14%. This
AW is equivalent to 14 mm of water in 100 mm depth of soil, or 140
mm of water in 1 m depth of soil.
 These forms of expressing available water are very useful and
common in irrigation and farm water management.
 Available water of soil is also referred to as water-holding
capacity, water-storage capacity, and water-retention
capacity.
 Table 6.1 presents typical WHC values for various soil textures. The
total depth of water available to the crop, TAW, depends on WHC
and depth of soil from which roots can take water (effective root
zone depth).
 TAW can be expressed as:

TAW = D × WHC ___________________________________________(6.1)

where: D is the effective root zone depth.
 The lower the available moisture content of the soil, the deeper the
roots of the crop must reach to secure a sufficiently large soil
reservoir capacity.

 Following a heavy rainstorm water may percolate below the root

zone, where it will be out of the reach of plant roots. Plants can take
up only the available water retained within the root zone of crop.

 However, more often the soil depth is not sufficient to allow roots to
grow to their full potential. Additionally, compacted, more or less
impervious soil layers may act as physical barriers to root
penetration (Rwehumbiza et al., 2000)
6.2.1.3 Infiltration rate
 Infiltration is the process whereby water enters the soil through the
soil surface. Infiltration rate is a dynamic property varying with
season and management.
 The main factors affecting infiltration rate are the soil type, the
condition of the soil surface, and soil water content (Figure 6.1).
 Structure and bulk density of the soil influence infiltration rate
because of their relation to pore size distribution.
Figure 6.1 shows the infiltration characteristics of two types of soil.
 The loamy sand has a greater infiltration rate than silty clay. Silty
clay may have a lower infiltration rate but higher runoff efficiency
than loamy sand.
 Hence, care should be taken when designing a water harvesting
system to assess what percentage of rainfall will be available as runoff
water, how much of it will infiltrate, and how much will be used by the
plants as soil moisture.
 A catchment (runoff area) with a final infiltration rate of 5 mm/h or
less is a very good medium for harvesting rainwater (Eger, 1986).
Table 6.3 presents typical values for final (basic) infiltration rates for
various soils.
6.2.2 Crop water requirements
 In designing water harvesting systems, it is necessary to assess the
water requirements of the crops intended to be grown (Allen et al.,
1998).
 However, be emphasized that water consumption by crops under
water harvesting conditions (without interim storage) is different
than that under fully irrigated agriculture.
 The latter is usually characterized by high production inputs and
proper irrigation scheduling and management.
 Under water harvesting without storage outside the soil matrix,
however, there is no irrigation scheduling per.
6.2.2.1 Plant and drought
 The objective of any water harvesting system in agriculture is to
deliver a specific amount of water to the target (normally a crop).
 It is not always necessary to meet the full water needs of the crop;
the objective should be to deliver an amount of water that results in
an economical return.
 There is no control on the timing of water supply to the crop root
zone under water harvesting conditions.
 Drought-tolerant crops are recommended to reduce the risk of crop
failure if supplemental irrigation is not feasible.
 Suitable crops for growing in water harvesting systems include
sorghum, millet, barley, wheat, pulses, ground nut, olive, and
pistachio.
6.2.2.2 Estimating crop water needs
 Crop water requirement is defined as the depth of water needed to
meet the water loss through evapotranspiration of a disease-free
crop, growing in large fields under non restricting soil conditions,
including soil water and fertility, and achieving full production
potential under the given growing environment.
 It includes transpiration of the crop as well as direct evaporation from
the soil and the plant surfaces.
6.2.2.3 Field water budget
 important in evaluating the inter seasonal behavior of the soil–water–
climate–crop system.
 In this approach the soil profile is subdivided into a number of layers.
These layers may possess different physical properties and levels of
soil moisture. The depth of water in each layer is determined by
multiplying its volumetric water content by the layer thickness.
 The total water available in the root zone, the so called soil
reservoir, is calculated by summing the depth of water in all the
layers.
 The term WH in equation (6.2) depends, among many other factors, on
the size (area) of the catchment relative to the cropped area (the
target).
 There will be periods when the amount of precipitation is significantly
less than the mean value used in the system design. While it is
technically feasible to enlarge the catchment and storage in
anticipation of below-average precipitation, it is not usually feasible to
design a water harvesting system to meet the least amount of
precipitation that can be expected.
 The field water budget concept can be used to decide on the degree
of risk that can be accepted regarding insufficient precipitation
during some periods.
 The final sizes (area) of the catchment and target should be
determined using an incremental (weekly or monthly) water budget of
water collected versus water requirements.
 In the absence of any measured climatic data, estimates of water
requirements for common crops can be used.
6.3 RAINFALL
 The quantity of rainfall that might occur during a given time period is
one of the most difficult parameters to predict.
6.3.1 Inter-seasonal distribution of rainfall
 Monthly precipitation data are usually available for most places.
 Averages derived from long-term precipitation records are the most
common form available.
 Fluctuations can have a major impact on the ability of a water
harvesting system to supply the required water.
 To minimize the effect of variations in precipitation, it is
recommended to use records covering more than 10 years.
 With adequate long-term data, probability analysis can be used to
estimate likely monthly precipitation for use in designing the
optimum system.
6.3.2 Design rainfall
 The design rainfall for water harvesting is determined by frequency
analysis of the available rainfall data.
 The analysis may be performed on yearly, monthly, or weekly rainfall
series (Figure 6.4).
 First, an acceptable exceedance probability, i.e., the percentage of
years, months, or weeks in which rainfall will exceed a given value, is
selected; this is commonly between 60 and 80% in designing water
harvesting systems.
 Using the long-term rainfall data, this exceedence value can be
translated into a rainfall depth, and this is taken as the design rainfall.
• A probability analysis can be carried out for a particular month during
the growing season. Of course, monthly rainfall varies and fluctuates
more than yearly total rainfall. Also, daily rainfall exhibits more
variation than weekly or monthly rainfall.
• Therefore, it is not acceptable to carry out probability analysis for each
month separately then take a certain exceedance probability rainfall for
all the months and consider their total as the yearly rainfall for that
exceedance probability.
 This is because:

• Equation (6.3) verbally states, that the sum of the standard deviations
of monthly rainfall series is greater than the standard deviation of the
sums of the monthly rainfall (i.e., yearly rainfall).
• Figure 6.4 shows the monthly rainfall based on frequency analysis for
yearly rainfall and not for monthly rainfall series analysis. The Figure
indicates that there is no water shortage to barley, at this site, before
the beginning of March.
• Figure 6.4 shows that based on 70% rainfall probability, there is
shortage of about 50 mm of water to barley by the end of April.
• Barley at Breda usually does not need water after the end of April. Thus,
the design depth of harvested water that should be furnished by the
harvesting system should be around 50 mm.
6.3.3 Need for storage
 In rain fed agriculture the intra seasonal distribution of rainfall is as
important as the total rainfall.
 If the bulk of the rain always or mostly falls long before the critical
growth stages of the crop (when crop water demand is highest) a
storage facility other than the soil profile will be needed.
 It is important to determine the minimum storage volume that will
provide sufficient water to meet crop needs during periods of low
rainfall.
 There is no need for greater storage capacity if there are no periods
when there is insufficient water.
 Less storage capacity is needed if the periods of maximum
precipitation coincide with the periods of maximum use.
 More storage capacity is needed if periods of greatest precipitation
occur either long before or after the periods of greatest water need.
6.3.4 Basic design procedure
 There is no standard or ideal design for a water harvesting system.
Each site and water use has unique design requirements and each
system must be fitted to the local conditions and needs.
 There are many separate elements that must be considered in
designing of water harvesting systems, including precipitation
patterns, water requirement patterns, alternate water sources, soil
types, land topography, available materials, labor, and acceptability of
water harvesting concepts to the water users.
 Many of these factors are interrelated and it is difficult to assess their
role separately; hence they must be simultaneously considered during
the design and implementation of a water harvesting system.
 The design procedure depends mainly on the type of crop and water
harvesting technique.
 Long-slope and floodwater systems usually involve the design of a
small dam, diversion structures, and water conveyance and/or
distribution systems.
 The size of a long-slope or floodwater catchment area is often not
under the designer’s control. Thus, the designer determines the extent
of the cropped area that may be served with the expected runoff.
 Runoff in macro catchment systems may be determined directly using
gauges (Figure 6.5), calculated from flow cross sectional area and
velocity measurements, or estimated using simulation models.
 Such large-scale systems are beyond the ability of individual farmers,
and advice should be sought from engineers.
 Unlike the macro-catchment design, the most important element in the
design of micro-catchments is the determination of the catchment area
required to supply the required amount of water to the target area.
 On-farm micro-catchment water harvesting systems do not require
water-storage structures, because the harvested water is stored in the
soil of the crop’s root zone.
6.3.5 Selection of site and method
 Not all areas are suitable for implementing water harvesting systems.
Apart from basic technical requirements, the selected technique must
be compatible with local social and farming systems.
 Table 6.13 outlines the requirements of the most important mico-
catchment water harvesting techniques. This information can be
helpful in selecting the most suitable one.
 The intended use of the water harvested (domestic, consumption by
livestock, irrigation of crops, or multipurpose) determines to some
extent the site and the most appropriate methods.
 Topography is a major factor in selecting an appropriate water
harvesting technique.
 Generally, steeper slopes are used as catchments and shallower
slopes or flat land is used for cropping. Soils are generally shallower
on steep slopes and deeper on shallower slopes, which is
advantageous to the two uses.
 Soils with high infiltration rates, such as sandy soils, are not good as
catchment areas for water harvesting unless runoff inducement
measures are applied.
 Higher investments in runoff inducement are only economic, when the
harvested water is used for human and animal consumption or for the
production of high-value crops.
 Water rights, land tenure, and land use may limit the choice of site
and technique. Overlooking these issues has contributed to the failure
of many water harvesting projects.
 Large-scale systems may be more economical and require less
individual installation and maintenance.
Selection of best-suited micro-catchment method
 Soil depth and slope angle are key factors influencing choice of water
harvesting technique. For example, contour bench terraces are
recommended on steep slopes exceeding 40%, while contour bunds
are not recommended for slopes greater than 25% (Figure 6.6).
 small individual farms may be better suited to micro-catchment
systems than are collectively owned land.
 The farmer’s ability to operate and maintain the system determines
the level of sophistication of the system that can be employed.
 Construction requirements such as availability of materials and skilled
labor also influence the choice of system.
6.3.6 Selection of crops
In addition to the climatic and local farming conditions, the following
should be considered in selecting crops:
− Drought-tolerant crops reduce the risk of crop failure.
− Annual crops and trees already grown in the local farming system are
ideal.
− In drier environments, shrubs and trees are more likely to regrow after
browsing and harvesting than are grasses and legumes.
− Seasonal crops that grow during the rainy season should always be
given priority in order to assure quick payoff from the water harvesting
system.
− If the rainy season is much below average, even established trees may
not survive on shallow soil. Choice of crop should be based on indicative
values for maximum effective root zone depth under water harvesting
conditions (see Table 6.2).
− Longer periods of waterlogging may occur; hence, crops sensitive to
waterlogging should be avoided.
6.3.7 Runoff estimation
The likely amount of runoff that can be harvested can be estimated
from the following equation:
6.3.8 Catchment: Cropping area ratio (CCR)
 represents the degree of concentration of rainfall in water harvesting
systems.
 Overestimating the ratio needed wastes land and water. Not all the
water harvested is beneficially used by the crops in the cultivated area.
Some of it evaporates, and some of it percolates below the effective
root zone of the crop, putting it beyond the reach of the crop roots.
There are two main reasons for deep percolation:
(a) too little water-storage capacity in the root zone especially during
periods of heavy and/or frequent rainfall;
(b) non uniformity of water distribution across the cropped area.
This efficiency is defined as the ratio of the volume of harvested water
that is stored in the effective depth of the crop root zone to the total
volume of water harvested.
Typical values for storage efficiency range from 60% to 80%.
 The volume of water harvested can be calculated from the following
equation:
Volume of water harvested = A × R × RC ……………………………(6.5)
where:
 A is the catchment area
 R is the design rainfall (seasonal or yearly)
 RC is the design seasonal or yearly runoff coefficient
 The gross volume (GVE) of extra water required to satisfy crop
consumptive use can be calculated from the following equation:
By rearranging equations (6.5) and (6.6), the ratio (A/a) that represents
the ratio of the catchment area to the cropped area (CCR) can be solved
as follows:

6.3.9 Design examples

Two simple design examples for illustrating the use of the procedure
presented in the previous section are given below:
6.3.10 Optimization of system design
 The two examples presented above show that increasing the
dependability level of the water harvesting system from 70% (seven
successful years and three years of failure out of 10 years period) to
90% (which reduces design rainfall) increased the area ratio from 4:1
to 6:1.
 Increasing the area ratio from 4:1 to 6:1 means reducing the cropped
area from 0.2 ha/ha to 0.14 ha/ha of gross area of land.
 Therefore, in a successful year, the crop production per unit
gross area (i.e., catchment plus cropped area) of land will decrease
as the area ratio is increased.
 Table 6.15 shows the effect of changing the exceedance probability
on average crop production per unit area based on the above
assumptions. The table indicates that 70% exceedance probability
gives the highest average crop production per unit area.
6.3.11 Further considerations in area ratio selection
 Determining the CCR on the basis of seasonal rainfall and seasonal
crop water consumptive use has many problems and drawbacks,
including the following:
− It does not take into consideration the dynamics of soil moisture in
the root zone along the growing season.
− It overlooks the effect of soil water storage capacity on this dynamics.
− More importantly, it does not give any consideration to the temporal
distribution of rainfall over the growing season.
6.4 Design considerations for trees
 Water harvesting may not be successful for trees and other perennial
crops unless the soil of the cropped area is deep enough and has
sufficient water-holding capacity to cope with the evaporative demand
of dry, hot, and rainless periods that may last longer than seven
months (e.g. in the Sahel region).
 Ideally, the root zone reservoir should be full with total available water
at the beginning of the rainless period.
6.4.1 Life-saving harvested water
 As was discussed earlier, trees and other perennials survive hot, dry
periods that may last several months.
 Storing the water in the root zone minimizes evaporation and
seepage losses that usually occur in water storage reservoirs.
 Alternatively, the CCR may be increased to increase the volume of
water harvested towards the end of the rainy season.
 However, this may put additional stress on the earthen bunds and
dikes of the system.
 Therefore, these structures must be strengthened.
 It may be best to employ a strategy that combines both of these
approaches.
6.5 DIMENSIONING, MATERIALS AND ESTIMATION OF QUANTITIES
 The availability of suitable construction materials at or near the
construction site is one of the basic requirements for a successful water
harvesting project and influences the choice of water harvesting
technique.
 Stones of a suitable size and structurally stable soils are the two basic
construction materials for water harvesting systems.
 Manufactured construction materials can be used, but they come at a
relatively high cost.
 Water harvesting is in general a low-cost technology that should
depend on local natural resources including construction materials.
6.5.1 Dimensioning and system layout
 After determining the CCR for the micro-catchment water harvesting
system, the next step in implementation is to dimension and lay out the
system on the ground.
 Dimensioning refers to selecting the proper dimensions (spacing,
length, width, height, etc.) of the various components of the water
harvesting system needed to satisfy the design requirements of the
system.
 This process can be illustrated using the case of a crescent micro-
catchment water harvesting system. Figure 6.8 shows a typical layout
for such a system.
 The catchment may be defined as the space or area enclosed inside
the shape bcdefgha. The area of this catchment Ac may be, for
practical purposes, approximated by:
 At is the target (or cropped) area which may be defined by the
segment of the circle in which the chord is the straight line
connecting the two ends of the crescent. The area of this circle
segment may be roughly approximated by:
• As an example for semicircular crescents, if k = 0, W = 5 m and H = 4
m (that is Y = 6.5 m), the CCR, Ar, is equal to 3.3. If this value is
equal to the CCR (i.e., A/a) calculated by equation (6.7), the
dimensioning and layout of the semicircular bunds are acceptable,
otherwise a better layout should be looked for.
 For contour ridges, dikes, and bunds, the height of the bund is more
or less constant. However, for crescent, trapezoidal, rectangular, and
triangular micro-catchment systems, bund height is not constant
because of the slope of the ground.
 The height is greatest at the lowest point and least at the upper ends
(tips) of these bunds. Therefore, care should be taken that the depth
of impounded water behind (i.e., upper side of the) bund does not
overrun it.
 This requires that the level of the bund top at the lowest point of the
bund is at least 10–15 cm higher than the ground level at the upper
ends or tips of the bund.
 This condition assures that excess harvested water runs off around the
tips of the bunds rather than running over the bund.

 Moreover, the surface storage capacity of the bund should be sufficient

to store the anticipated volume of runoff water calculated in equation
(6.5).

 Land slope determines the distance between contours (Y in Figure 6.8).

 This in turn affects the boundaries and size of the catchment area.

 Sites with nearly uniform slopes are ideally suited to micro-catchment

water harvesting because the contour lines are almost parallel.
 If the land slope on the site is not uniform, the planner should choose a
representative slope that dominates in the site for dimensioning and
laying out the system.
 Figures 6.9–6.11 give construction details of a negarim on a 3% slope.
 The total size of the negarim is 5 × 5 m; the size of the infiltration pit is
1.8 × 1.8 × 0.4 m.
6.5.2 Bund earthwork
 Bunds (ridges or dikes) are major components of all water
harvesting systems.
 In this section, the following basic items are briefly discussed:
(1) how to estimate the volume of a 1-m length of bund;
(2) how to express the bund earthwork volume per hectare; and
(3) how to balance the earthwork of a small runoff basin (negarim).
Bunds are earthen structures, usually long with a trapezoidal cross
section. Figure 6.12 shows a typical cross section of a bund. The
volume of earthwork (or stonework) per meter length of the bund can
be computed by the following formula:
• If the bunds are of contour type, the volume of earthwork can be
calculated per unit area of land based on the average spacing between
the contour bund lines, using the following equation:
V = E × 10 000/S
• Using the same values of b, d, and z as in the previous example, if the
average spacing, S, between contour bunds was 8 m, then volume of
earthwork, V, per hectare of the system land area will be:
V = 0.24 × 10 000/8 = 300 m3 /ha
 For small runoff basins (such as negarims) with, say, rectangular or
diamond shapes, only two sides (one length and one width) should
be taken in computing the earthwork per basin.
 The other two sides are included in the computations of the
neighboring basins. For example, if the basins were squares of 5 m ×
5 m, b = 0.15 m, d = 0.25 m, and z = 1, then E (from Equation (6.14)
will be:
 Alternatively, one can use the average cross section along the entire
length of the semicircle.
 Thus, if the diameter (W in Figure 6.8) of the semicircular bund is 35
m, spacing between contours (Y in Figure 6.8) is 50 m, spacing
between circle centers along the same contour is 44 m, and the
average cross sectional area of the bund is 0.4 m2 , then the volume
of earthwork, Vc, per semicircular unit will be:
6.5.3 Earthwork balance
 In building contour bunds and ridges, earth is usually borrowed from
the immediate vicinity of the bund line.
 The excavated area is immediately uphill (upstream) from the bund.
The excavated area acts like a basin, furrow, or depression for
collecting and temporarily storing the harvested water.
 For small runoff basins (such as negarims for trees), the soil excavated
from the infiltration pit is used in constructing the bunds.
 The amount of soil excavated must equal the volume of earth needed
to construct the bunds or ridges of each basin.
 The standard depth of excavation of the infiltration pit is 0.40 m.
 As mentioned before, for macro-catchment systems more durable
materials and better calculations of runoff and water needs are
necessary (Figure 6.13).
 Chapter 7

Implementation, operation, and maintenance of water

harvesting systems

7.1 Introduction
 Many water harvesting projects have failed or experienced serious problems
(Falkenmark et al., 2001).
 The main reason for the failures was the lack of an integrated approach
during the planning process, especially concerning the implementation,
operation, and maintenance of the systems.
 Lack of maintenance is a common cause of failure of well-intentioned
schemes. Projects often assume that the beneficiaries will maintain the
system once it is installed, but local communities may not have the
resources or skills needed to do this.
 The cost of maintaining water harvesting structures may be too high for the
local population to afford yet may still be low in comparison with the cost of
installing a new system.
 The costs of operating and maintaining the system must thus be taken into
consideration during the planning stage so that the system installed will
continue to function once the project supporting its installation has ended.
 Unfortunately, water harvesting techniques introduced through new
projects often ignore traditional methods used locally and introduce
new approaches that the beneficiaries are unfamiliar with.
 Beneficiaries are commonly excluded from any meaningful
participation in the planning and implementation process (Bazza &
Tayaa, 1994).
 Even if traditional methods are considered, other systems approaches
may be judged to be superior.
 Where a new system is to be introduced, training in its construction,
operation, and maintenance will be needed to ensure the long-term
functioning of the system.
 This chapter focuses on the operation and maintenance of the various
water harvesting systems discussed in previous chapters. The
emphasis is on engineering aspects; socioeconomic issues are
covered in next Chapters.
7.2 IMPLEMENTING WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS
 Beneficiaries should participate in all phases of water harvesting
projects, especially implementation.
 should suit beneficiaries’ purpose, be accepted by local population,
and be sustainable in local environment.
 The best method applicable in particular environmental and
geophysical conditions depends on the kind of crop to be grown and
prevalent socioeconomic and cultural factors.
 Local availability of labor and material are important factors.
 The accessibility of the site and distance from villages have also to
be considered.
 All stakeholders should be involved in planning, designing, and
implementation of water harvesting structures.
 A consensus is necessary for operation and maintenance of these
structures. Involvement of governmental and local non-governmental
organizations may also enhance collective action by the community.
 Land tenure in rangelands varies from one country to another.

 Constraints to the implementation are: farmers’ unfamiliarity with

the technology, conflicts and disputes about water rights, land
ownership, and use, and lack of adequate characterization of
rainfall, evapotranspiration, and soil properties.
 Water harvesting may be implemented by a farmer, the community,
or by public agencies.
 Micro-catchment water harvesting usually comes within individual
farms. This is a simple and low-cost approach; however, farmers may
experience some difficulty in following the contour lines during
construction.
 Larger micro- or macro-catchment water harvesting systems may
need to be implemented through a project authorized by the local
community, with help and guidance from the government.
 Large-scale long slope and/or floodwater harvesting schemes
generally need the intervention of public agencies.
 Such projects usually involve government facilities or contractors, and
machinery or paid local laborers. Here, the initial cost is relatively
high.
 Such so-called top-down approaches are rarely successful; most
water harvesting projects implemented by this approach have failed
and been abandoned by the beneficiaries.
 Projects involving farmers and local communities have been more
successful than top-down projects, but require simple
demonstrations, training, and extension services.
 The main advantage of the top-down approach is that it is quick and
efficient in rehabilitating land.
However, as noted, the costs are high and large systems require
expensive repairs that are beyond the resources of local people. It can
be justified in areas with high rainfall (i.e. high yield), where little labor
is available, and a quick result is needed.
 As a first step, all parties involved with the project (farmers,
community authority, and government representatives) should be
engaged in a to identify the best technical approaches for the
locality.
 The plan of action developed should be simple enough for the people to
implement.

 Furthermore, the water harvesting system itself must be sustainable.

 The planner should be ready to listen and learn from the farmers.

 Sharing farmers in the managerial role contributes to the success of the

project (Figure 8.1).

7.3 CONSIDERATIONS IN IMPLEMENTATION

 Many previous water harvesting projects were implemented without a

complete integrated study prior to execution, resulting in many technical
errors in design and implementation.

 In many cases, the techniques applied were inappropriate and did

not suit local conditions (Figure 8.2). Sometimes appropriate
techniques were selected but the installations were neither adequate nor
complete.
Some basic technical criteria that must be met in any water harvesting
project (Critchley & Siegert, 1991) are:
Slope: The engineering structures required in a given situation increase
as the slope increases. But, water harvesting is not recommended for
areas with slopes of more than 50% since this may be uneconomical.
Soils: The soil should be deep, neither saline nor sodic, and should be
generally fertile. The major limitations are with limited soil depth and
sandy soils which have a relatively high infiltration rate and a low water
holding capacity
Costs: depends on the amount of earth/ stonework involved. Even
where this is directly carried out by the farmers, it is a pointer to the
amount of labor required to construct the system. Therefore, the
selected technique should suit the farmers’ financial capability.
 In addition to the above basic considerations, the planner must
consider alternative sources of water.
 Each alternative should be compared with water harvesting in terms of
cost and level of risk involved. The comparison must take into
account not only the water quality required, but also the initial cost
and the cost of operation and maintenance.
 Where an alternative water source is cheaper to develop, easier to
obtain, or can be developed at lesser risk, it should be given priority
(Critchley & Siegert, 1991).
Other issues must to be considered in any water-harvesting projects to
reduce maintenance and overall project cost are given below:
7.3.1 Over-design and under-design issues
 Over-designing or under-designing may lead to the failure of the
project.
 Over-design increases project and maintenance costs, and may result
in the abandonment of the system soon after implementation.
 No general rule or guideline can be given on design issues because
although water harvesting have been used in some parts of the world
for centuries, only very limited design data are available.
 And even where design data exist, they cannot easily be
transferred from one location to the other because of
constraints imposed by local conditions.
 The impacts of global climate change, such as longer drought
periods and higher rainstorm intensities, may require
higher catchment: cropping area ratios (CCR) and more solid
(i.e. higher, broader and more compacted) earthen structures.
7.3.2 Appropriate technology
 Several features found in traditional farmer-managed systems can
be an important part of the appropriate technology suitable for the
locality (Figure 8.3).
 Some of these systems have withstood the test of time and
important lessons can be learnt by studying them.
 Nevertheless, technology transfer should be carefully planned,
especially when a technique alien to the area in question is
recommended.
 Conflict can be created by the unwillingness of modern technologists
to learn from their traditional Counterparts.
 The technocrats should be ready to work closely with, and accept the
opinions of, the farmer beneficiaries.
 The success of water harvesting projects depends on good design,
economic feasibility and beneficiaries’ willingness to undertake full
responsibility for operation and management.
 Operation and maintenance of the system have to be incorporated
into the feasibility study, so that the authorities know well in advance
what to expect from the project and how its goals will be achieved
(Figure 8.4).
 Good management can only be effective if there is full cooperation
between the beneficiaries and the authorities in charge of the
project.
7.4 OPERATING WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS
 A locally acceptable team involving mainly the project beneficiaries
should be constituted at tahe beginning of the project to oversee the
operation of the water harvesting system.
 The responsibility of this body should extend beyond the project
phase. The use of an indigenous administrative structure is
recommended.
 Micro-catchment water harvesting systems should be inspected after
every runoff-producing rainstorm so that any minor breaks in bunds
can be promptly repaired.
 For a large-scale floodwater harvesting system there may be a need
to create a local association that will liaise with the government
agency on issues pertaining to the project.
 This local institution may be supported by the government for a
limited period of time, but should be expected to gradually take over
the full responsibility of operating and maintaining the project.
 All new water harvesting systems should be inspected often
especially during the first one or two rainy seasons following
construction.
 Treated catchments should be protected against damage by grazing
animals.
 Silt and trash should be removed from the water conveyance and
distribution systems and storage facilities.
7.5 MAINTAINING WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS
 Water harvesting system requires daily observation to assess effects of
heavy rainfall, damage by animals, etc., and this is unlikely to be done
if the responsibility lies in the hands of a government agency
 All stakeholders in a water harvesting system should be made aware of
the maintenance that is required for the long-term functioning of the
system, and must contribute to ensuring that such maintenance is
conducted promptly and effectively.
 Table 8.1 gives an overview of the maintenance requirements of some
water harvesting techniques covered in this book.
7.6 MONITORING AND EVALUATION
 Water harvesting systems have to be monitored or evaluated to assess
how well they are functioning, the extent to which they are meeting
design specifications, or the degree and causes of their success or
failure.
 Essential to ensure the effective operation of such projects and to allow
operators to take remedial action as necessary.
For example, if monitoring shows that the amount of runoff water has
been over-estimated, the cropped area can be reduced to achieve
the desired results.
 The information gathered also enables all stakeholders to learn from
what went well and what did not, allowing future projects to be
modified and improved.
 Without such information, subsequent projects follow the same
pattern as earlier projects, repeating their errors and limitations.
 Data should be collected on all aspects of the functioning of the
project, including technical performance of the facilities (Figures
8.7 and 8.8), agricultural performance, environmental factors
(rainfall, soil erosion, etc.), and socioeconomic and cultural
impacts.
 For large projects, using newest technology like GIS, carefully
selected research and monitoring sites, in addition to in-situ
ground truth is recommended to enable one obtain an up-to-date
information on the project evolution (Figure 8.9).
 Project planners should ensure that comprehensive reports are
kept of all the project phases.
These can be used:
− as a means of evaluating the degree of realization of the project
objectives;
− to determine the accuracy of the project design assumptions and
address any errors;
− as a source of information for planners and government
establishments seeking to meet the development need of the region;
and
− to evaluate the response of the local populace to the new system.
7.7 EXTENSION AND TRAINING
 Farmers and extension agents should be trained if the project is to
succeed.
 Bringing together project staff, extension agents, farmers, and
pastoralists allows the training to address both the role each of them
is expected to play in the project and their complementary roles.
 Each training program should endeavor to identify the most important
need of the farmers and articulate means of satisfying those needs.
 The willingness of the trainer to learn from the farmers’ experience
will enhance the quality and result of any training program.
 CHAPTER 8
Water quality and environmental
considerations
8.1 INTRODUCTION
 Water is never found in pure state in nature. Essentially, all water
contains substances derived from the natural environment and
human activities. These constituents determine water quality.
 Storing water in tanks, reservoirs, etc. poses quality and hygienic
problems, especially in warmer climates.
 Thus, water quality considerations differ between micro-catchment
and macro-catchment systems, and between systems with and
without interim storage.
 The implementation of water harvesting systems has numerous
impacts on the environment, e.g. on aquatic life, and also on the
spread of water-related diseases.
8.2 WATER HARVESTED FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION
 Water for domestic uses and drinking must meet certain qualitative standards.
 WHO (2004) provide guidelines for the provision of safe drinking water, including
quality standards and information on the roles and responsibilities of various stake
holders involved in providing drinking water.
 However, the practical application of these requirements varies from place to place
depending on the living standard of the community and type of water source.
 The main water quality indicators of drinking water are characterized by their
physical, chemical, and biological parameters (RAIN, 2008).
The list of the main indicators/parameters includes:
 Alkalinity
 Color of water
 pH
 Taste and odor
 Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese,
magnesium)
 Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium,
and Giardia lamblia
 Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)
 Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter, dissolved organic carbon, etc.
 Heavy metals
 Therefore, the basic requirements for safe drinking water are:
– free from disease-causing organisms;
– free from compounds that have an adverse effect on human health;
– fairly clear (low turbidity and little color); and
– without offensive taste or smell.
 There are several simple methods for treating water before drinking
to improve its biological properties:
– Boiling will kill any harmful bacteria that may be present.
– Adding chlorine in the right quantity (35 ml of sodium hypochlorite per
1000 liters of water) will disinfect the water.
– Slow sand filtration will remove any harmful organisms when carried
out properly (RAIN, 2008).
– Using the flocculation power of Moringa tree’s seeds to purify water
(About 100 mg per liter water).
– Use of sunlight (ultraviolet compounds) to disinfect water filled in
plastic tubes. Further information on water disinfection and fresh-
keeping of stored rainwater is found in Zhu et al. (1999).
8.3 WATER HARVESTED FOR ANIMAL CONSUMPTION
 Livestock generally require water similar to that which would be
suitable for human consumption, although many animals tolerate
water of somewhat poorer quality.
 Farm water supplies should be protected against contamination with
microorganisms, chemicals, and other pollutants.
 Substances that originate on livestock farms and often contaminate
water supplies include nitrates, bacteria, and organic materials,
including feces, and suspended solids.
 Measures must be taken to prevent human and animal wastes
contaminating the water resource.
 Most of the bacterial contamination of water occurs at or after water
has been collected.
 Similarly any water spilled at the collection point which drains
back to the water body is almost certain to contain bacterial
contaminants.
 Household wastewater is often returned to water courses without
any treatment and it can become a serious health hazard for both
animals and humans.
 The trough to water livestock should be located at the opposite side
of the cistern than the inflow opening. Otherwise the droppings of
the animals are carried by the runoff straight into the cistern.
 Water can serve as a home for many different disease organisms and
toxins.
 Stagnant water contaminated with manure or other nutrients may
develop blue-green algae, which can poison livestock.
 Farm pond water needs to be observed for the presence of algae and
other harmful organisms during hot, dry weather.
 One should take care to avoid forcing livestock to drink from water
sources that may be contaminated with urine.
 When water is suspected of causing health problems in livestock,
veterinary assistance should be sought to determine the actual
disease.
 Water is too often blamed for production or disease problems.
8.4 WATER HARVESTED FOR CROP PRODUCTION
 The quality of water used for irrigation is an important factor in
productivity and agricultural sustainability (Ayers & Westcot, 1994).
 In most locations where water harvesting for agriculture is practiced,
the physical quality of water is much more important than the
chemical quality.
 Of importance are the quantities of solids transported and where they
are deposited, and the nutrients, and in rare cases also pollutants,
carried by the particles (Figure 10.2).
 If the sediments are rich in clay, water infiltration may be hampered.
8.5 WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS RELATED TO WATER
HARVESTING METHODS
 Each type of water harvesting system is associated with particular
types of water quality problems (Table 10.2).
8.5.1 Rooftop and courtyard systems
 These systems are normally equipped with some kind of storage
(tanks, jars, barrels, etc.) (Table 10.2, Figure 10.3).
 Water collected from a roof, courtyard, etc. may contain biological,
chemical, and physical impurities
 There are several key considerations.
First, there is the issue of bacteriological water quality.
-Rainwater can become contaminated by feces (e.g. bird droppings)
entering the tank from the catchment area. This can be avoided by
regular and thorough cleaning of the catchment surface.
 Rainwater tanks should be designed to prevent contamination by
leaves, dust, insects, vermin, and industrial or agricultural
pollutants.
 Tanks should be sited away from trees, with well-fitted lids, and
kept in good condition.
 Incoming water should be filtered, screened, or allowed to settle to
remove foreign matter before entering the storage facility.
 Water that is relatively clean on entry to the tank will usually
improve in quality if allowed to settle for some time inside the tank.
 Keeping a tank dark and in a shady spot will prevent growth of
algae and also keep the water cool.

 Second, there is the problem of chemical pollution.

This can have its origin in a number of sources:

– Corroding/degrading material from the catchment area
– Air pollution from industrial emissions
– Automobile emissions
 The sediments themselves may be harmless but many forms of
contaminants, both bacterial and dissolved salts, often adhere to the
microscopic particles.
 Allowing water to stand for a few days and then consuming only the
clear water from the top can avoid many of the dangers.
 A number of actions can be taken to ensure the quality of water
harvested from rooftops and courtyards:
filtering is totally ineffective in removing dissolved contaminants such as
various salts (NaCl, CaCO3 ) that have not adhered to the surfaces of
particulates.
– Tanks should be sealed to prevent insects from entering. Mosquito
proof screens should be fitted to all openings.
– The tank should be emptied at the end of the dry season and any
silt collected in the bottom should be removed.
– The ropes and bucket used to raise water from underground tanks or
cisterns should be kept clean, and those handling them should wash
their hands to avoid introducing pollutants
 These suggestions refer not only to storage tanks but also to
cisterns (Figure 10.4).
 The area surrounding a rainwater harvesting system should be
kept in good sanitary condition and fenced off to prevent animals
fouling the area or children playing around the tank.
 Any pools of water gathering around the tank or cistern should be
drained and the depressions filled
.
8.5.2 Runoff water from on-farm micro-catchment systems
 Runoff water from the catchment is used directly (i.e. without
interim storage) to irrigate crops. Here, nutrients in the runoff water
will be beneficial, but sediments may reduce the physical quality of
the water.
8.5.3 Long-slope water harvesting
 Runoff water from long slopes is used to provide additional water to
trees, bushes, or annual crops on the cropped area.
 In most cases the water is conserved directly in the soil profile,
although it is sometimes stored in cisterns, ponds, or reservoirs.
 In this case the collected water may be used to water livestock or
for domestic purposes, too.
 The catchments are either left in a natural state or cleared of
vegetation and stones;
 For small storage facilities, it may be possible to construct a
sediment trap upstream of the reservoir (Oweis et al., 1999). Within
a few days most suspended sediments settle at the bottom of the
trap and the clear surface water can be directed to the main
storage facility (Figure 10.5).
 Animals and people should be kept away from water stored in ponds
or reservoirs using secure fencing or hedges.
 Water for animals should be supplied in a drinking trough. Allowing
animals to drink directly from a surface pond results in
contamination of the water
8.5.4 Floodwater harvesting
 Floodwater harvesting is commonly used to supply water to trees,
bushes, and annual crops.
 In a number of cases the water is stored in ponds and reservoirs.
 Sedimentation of distribution basins, canals, and storage bodies are
consequence common problem because of the large amount of
sediment carried by floodwater.
 The ephemeral river bed or wadi will also be affected.
 Deposition of sediment changes the character of the wadi.
 The sediments build up on the wadi bed, reducing the channel cross-
section, and changing the hydraulic gradient.
 The more obvious problem produced by sediments is the loss of
storage capacity of reservoirs.
 One efficient means to trap sediments is by constructing rock dikes
across valleys to capture surface water.
 The sediments will settle and create a flat surface for crop growing,
particularly trees with deep roots to reach the water stored in the
trapped sediments, as in the case of the jessour in North Africa (See
chapter 3).
 Stored water needs to be protected not only from evaporation and
seepage loss but also from contamination.
 Contamination occurs mainly from human or other animal contact.
Similarly, stored water needs to be protected from disease vectors
such as mosquitoes, flies, and mollusks
8.6 IMPACTS ON DOWNSTREAM ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
 Historically, aquatic flora and fauna have developed in concert with
existing water regimes.
 Implementing a water harvesting system alters the flow regime, which
will cause some species to become stressed and die off. Other species
that prefer the new flow regime will then colonize the wadi bed and
flood-plain. These changes may be seen as desirable or undesirable.
 In most locations, not only are the aquatic species adapted to the flow
regime, but other species, including humans, have adapted their
lifestyles to be at least partially dependent on the existing
environmental conditions.
 In recent years it has been realized that many of the changes produced
by significant modification of flow regimes are undesirable.
 Policies have been developing to reduce the changes in the flow
regimes such that the general environment downstream will not be
drastically modified.
 Downstream degradation of the aquatic flora and fauna produced by
cutting off all flows will eventually be drastic and irreversible.
 In most situations, the aquatic environments are not sufficiently
understood for clear guidelines to be developed.
 Post development flows are being set at about 25% of the pre-
development situation, with similar variability, but this is an arbitrary
figure which has no scientific basis.
 Presumably it will be enough to support some species, but others will
disappear.
 Environmental flows, the flows needed to sustain the naturally
occurring species (flora and fauna), are very difficult to define and are
currently the subject of vigorous scientific and political debates
(Pereira, 2002).
 For many streams, maintenance of the flows necessary to support
the natural systems means virtually no development can occur.
 In other regimes, particularly in semi arid and arid regions, very little
is known about possible effects of developing the very limited water
resources. It is quite possible that every region would be very
different.
 These effects may not be immediately apparent, but in the long run
they will be noticed, but by then it will probably be impossible to
reverse the effects even if there was a desire to do so.
 However, water harvesting projects can also contribute to higher
levels of biodiversity, e.g., by having small areas (each of about 100
m2 ) fenced at various locations to allow the natural flora to develop
and set seeds, undisturbed by grazing animals and well supplied by
harvested water
8.7 WATER-BORNE DISEASES
 Any form of water-resource development, such as a water harvesting
intervention, causes changes in natural conditions. Many of these
changes offer opportunities for multiplication of disease vectors, with
devastating effects.
 In regions where malaria, dengue fever, or similar insect-transmitted
diseases are endemic, storage of water on the surface needs to be
accompanied by precautionary measures to prevent the water
becoming a breeding site for these disease vectors.
 Where schistosomiasis is prevalent, measures must be taken to
control the snail that is the intermediate host of the parasite.
 It is important that planners, decision-makers and financiers take
health issues into consideration when planning of any water-resource
development project.
 This will often require changes to the scheme and may raise the cost
of the project.
 But with innovative ideas the changes and extra costs need not be
large. Examples are to be found in many irrigation developments in
regions where wadi or river blindness and schistosomiasis are
endemic.