Chapter 3

Sampling in Qualitative Data

Ex. Effect of a health

service; health visits of
doctors as follow up to
patients already served in
a Rural health unit in a
particular municipality
Ex. Grief process
wherein the bereaved
undergoes several
stages of bereavement
The choice of the subject interest
sets limit on the scope of the
investigation. Boundaries are
formed by determining “what is it
you want to be able to say about
it at the end of the study (Patton
1980, 100) and clarity to the issue
is critical to appropriate sampling
Sampling frame- target
population
*population – bigger scope
(totality of elements
covered by a study)
*target population – subject
of a bigger population
Elements (individual people,
beliefs, events, places, artifacts,
activity and time)
Qualitative: people by age
groups, gender, ethnicity,
culture, customers, clients,
patients, profession and
geographic area.
 Note:

In Qualitative research, the size

of the population is not as
important in quantitative
research
You do not have to come up with
a general statement that
represents the entire population
Size of the sample will depend on
what type of study you are
pursuing, purpose, time constraints
and the available resources
Purpose: meet the requirements of
the study to answer why, how, what,
where and when of the subject
subjectively rather than objectively
 Probability Sample

Peter DePaulo: 2 ways of

selecting samples: (1)
based on calculated
possibilities and the
informal “Rule of Thumb”
postulated by some authors.
 Patton, M.C. (2001)

What sample size will reach

saturation or redundancy?
-size of the sample should be large
enough to leave you with “nothing
to left to learn or at saturation
point”
*realizing that there are no new
concepts emerging
How large a sample is needed
to represent the variation
within target population?
-sample size may be
determined based on the
approach of the study or the
data collection method used.
If focused groups
are desired (getting
an n of 30 from
three groups with 10
respondents in each
Case study – one case or one
person
Phenemenology – assess 10
people, if you reach saturation
prior, you may use fewer
Grounded theory/ Ethnography/
Narrative – 20-30 people
Collecting Pertinent Data
Data is the foundation of any
research
The integrity of every research
project relies highly on the value
and veracity of the data used in
fulfilling the research objectives
and addressing the research
question
Qualitative: observations,
participation, interviews,
content analysis and
techniques normally
associated with qualitative
research designs/
approaches/ methods
 Observation

Taking field notes

Using checklist of
important variables
Use of audio-video
medium (no memory-bias
involved)
 Generic Guidelines

Be descriptive in taking field notes

Gather a variety of information from
different perspectives
Cross-validate information by
gathering other sources like from
interviews, program documentation,
recordings and photographs
Use direct quotations from
the participants/ respondents
Select key informants wisely
Be aware of and sensitive to
the different stages of field
work
Build trust and rapport during
the early stage of encounter
Stay alert and disciplined during
the more routine middle-phase of
field work
Focus on pulling together a useful
synthesis as fieldwork draws to a
close
Be disciplined and conscientious in
taking detailed field notes
Be as involved as possible in
experiencing the observed setting
maintaining an analytical perspective
grounded in the purpose of the field
work
Clearly separate description from
interpretation and judgment
Provide formative feedback as
part of the verification process of
fieldwork.
Include in your field notes and
observation reports of your own
experiences, thoughts and
feelings.
Collecting Data Through Interviews

What is the difference

between a personal
interview and a self-
administered survey
questionnaire ?
The instruments are
designed differently; the
personal interview uses an
“Interview Schedule” where
an interviewer is required
to administer the schedule.
The items of inquiry use
open-ended questions for
the personal interview
but not for the self-
administered
questionnaire
Qualitative researchers are concerned
with making inference based on
perspective, so it is extremely
important to get as much data as
possible for later analysis
*generate participant perspectives about
ideas, opinions and experiences; only
scaling of opinions or providing scores to
measure the degree of agreement or
disagreement
In personal interview, there is
chance for clarification (vague
answers from the respondent
just as they happen during the
interview process which
cannot be done through self-
administered questionnaire
Personal interview does
not require the
respondent to be literate,
which is not so in the
self-administered
questionnaire in a survey
It is more expensive to
conduct a personal interview
than self-administered
questionnaire but it is easier
to prepare the research
instrument than a self-
administered questionnaire
 Guidelines (Patton, 1987)

Let the purpose of the study guide you in

the interview process
Provide a framework within which
respondents can express their own
understanding in their own terms
Understand the different kinds of
information one can collect through
interviews: behavioral data; opinions,
feeling; knowledge; sensory data; and
background information
Think about and plan how these
different kinds of questions can be
most appropriately worded for
each interview topic (past,
present and future questions and
the sequencing of questions)
Ask truly open-ended questions
Ask one question at a time
Use probing questions to solicit
depth and detail and ask follow-up
questions
Explain clearly what information
is desired
Listen attentively and respond
appropriately to let the person
know he or she is being heard
Avoid asking leading questions
Understand the difference
between a depth interview and an
interrogation
*Qualitative evaluators conduct
depth interviews; police
investigators and tax auditors
conduct interrogations
Establish personal rapport
and a sense of mutual respect
Maintain neutrality toward
the specific content of
responses
Be observant while
interviewing
Maintain your composure
while conducting the
interview
Tape recording whenever
possible to capture full and
exact quotations for analysis
and accurate reporting
Take note to capture and highlight
major points as the interview
progresses
As soon as possible after the
interview, check that all items have
appropriate responses; verify
recordings for malfunctions; review
notes for clarity; elaborate where
necessary and record observations.
Take whatever steps are appropriate
and necessary to gather valid and
reliable information
Treat the person being interviewed
with interest
Practice interviewing to develop and
hone your skills
Enjoy your interview and thank your
respondent for his/ her cooperation
 Coding Qualitative Data

When the data are

already collected, these
have to be summarized
in understandable and
coherent form ready for
data analysis.
Coding is a process of breaking
down sentences and paragraphs
to answer the research problem
of what, how, where and when
and assigning unique codes so
that you can summarize those
that are alike.
Analyzing Qualitative Data
 Data Analysis

is an exercise engaged in

establishing meaningful
patterns concerned with
building theory from
“bottom-up” style which is
actually induction method of
analysis
 Coding

Used to analyze qualitative

data, to discover concepts
within the data.
Reduce voluminous of data
to smaller manageable
groupings
Organizing data into
categories
Helps the researcher to
make sense of the data
especially the result of
unstructured interviews and
field notes
Theme identification is one
of the most fundamental
tasks in qualitative research
(task of discovering themes)
*come from reviewing the
literature
 Techniques for discovering themes

An analysis of words

(word repetitions, key-
indigenous terms and
key-words in contexts)
A careful reading of
larger blocks of texts
An intentional analysis
of linguistic features
(metaphors, transitions,
connections)
Physical
manipulation of texts
(unmarked texts,
pawing and cut and
sort procedures)
 Ways of
Qualitative
Analysis
 Donald Ratchcliff

Typology – this is a
classification system derived
from patterns, themes or
other kinds of groups of data.
-arts, activities, meanings,
participation, relationships,
settings
Grounded Theory/
Constant Comparison- looks
at documents such as field
notes, memos; compare
codes to find consistencies
and differences
Analytic Induction –
looks at the event and
develops a
hypothetical statement
of what happened
Logical Analysis/ Matrix
Analysis – outline of
generalized causation, logical
reasoning process, etc.
-flow charts, diagrams are used
to pictorially these as well as
written descriptions
Quasi-statistics – count
the number of times
something is mentioned
in field notes as very
rough estimate of
frequency.
Event Analysis. Microanalysis
– is like a frame analysis. It
emphasizes on findings
precise beginnings and
ending of events by finding
specific boundaries and things
- Film and video
Metaphorical
Analysis – try on
various metaphors
and see how well they
fit what is observed
Domain Analysis – describe
social situation and cultural
patterns within it, semantic
relationships.
-interrelate the social situation
to cultural meanings
Hermeneutical
Analysis – making
sense of a written
text; meaning of text
for people in situation
Content Analysis –
involves looking at
documents, texts or
speech to see what
themes emerge
Discourse Analysis –
linguistic analysis of
ongoing flow of
communication
-tapes are used so they be
played and replayed
Semiotics – is a
science of signs
and symbols, such
as body language